Chapter 4: Afflictive Hindrances and Defilements (1)

I. The Manifestation of Self-Mind and Self-Nature

The self-mind and self-nature of sentient beings manifest in every aspect. Even if one attempts complete disguise, traces and clues inevitably reveal themselves. Those without wisdom cannot perceive it, but the wise can glimpse this self-mind and self-nature from these traces. Moreover, the afflictive nature of current sentient beings is coarse and heavy, far from being as faint and subtle as mere traces.

The so-called "self" can be divided into many levels, from the small, private self to the greater self. Some take only the five aggregates and eighteen dhatus as self and what belongs to self, thus creating karma. Some extend it slightly, considering their parents, children, and relatives as part of self, thus creating karma. Some regard a small group they belong to as part of self, thus creating karma. Some consider a region as part of self, thus creating karma. Some view the country they reside in as part of self, thus creating karma.

Why do they create karma by regarding the country or group as part of self? Because it involves their personal interests. Without their own interests, ordinary people are unwilling to create karma; only when their interests are involved do they create karma. Therefore, regardless of how large the group they act for, it is ultimately for themselves; there is still a self-mind.

Achieving true selflessness is not easy. Everyone has some selfish desires, whether for the small self or a slightly larger self, because within the larger self lie the interests of the small self. Sentient beings often act either for wealth or power; if not for power, then for fame and reputation. Few are not for fame; they act for more justifiable personal interests, such as benefits in the Dharma like blessings, merit, or retinue. In short, all sentient beings harbor a self within, some lightly, some heavily; some conceal it shallowly, some deeply; some don’t conceal it at all. True selflessness is extremely rare.

The outward goodness of some is simultaneously an expression of great evil. Great evil often appears superficially good, seeming to benefit a slightly larger number, but it is actually evil, and greatly so, because it harms the interests of even more people. Some go to war proudly for their country, nominally to defend their homeland, yet they destroy the homelands of others. Is one's own homeland a home, while others' are not? But sentient beings do not see it this way. Whatever is related to "me" is deemed right; they act without considering the interests of others, thus creating karma openly and brazenly.

Some believe that acting for a group is selfless. But if the group does not include them or their interests, they are unwilling to act selflessly and create karma. If acting for one's own group is considered good, then what if it harms the interests of more groups and sentient beings? Is such an act good or evil? It is great evil. Often, the outward goodness of many hides greater evil. But sentient beings are foolish, unaware of this principle; it is the external manifestation of the manas (intentional root) secretly clinging to self.

Sentient beings generally prioritize self. Whatever relates to "me" must be defended, regardless of right or wrong. This is a very strong self-mind and self-nature. Regardless of the degree of self, as long as one's own interests are involved, it is a manifestation of self-mind. Whatever relates to "me" is good; whatever does not is bad. This is the manifestation of self-mind. Sentient beings often cannot introspect, nor are they willing to, due to shallow wisdom and an extremely heavy protective instinct for self.

II. How to Eliminate Emotional Attachments and Advance on the Path

Current sentient beings have deep emotional attachments, constantly competing for superiority, insisting on being the best and highest, striving to be first, insisting their group must be first—not only first but the only one, where only "I" matters, disregarding all else. Among Buddhists, it is the same, no less than among worldly people and groups. Buddhas and bodhisattvas see sentient beings clearly; it is sentient beings themselves who lack self-awareness and introspective power. Whatever relates to "me" is good—this is the emotional attachment psychology of sentient beings and a deep-seated habit of self-clinging. Sentient beings always strive to protect self and relatives related to self, large or small groups, at all costs, utterly disregarding cause and effect or consequences. This is a deeply ingrained emotional attachment psychology that is hard to change; often, karma is created precisely because of emotional attachment.

So, let's discuss whether there is a "first" in the world and who is "first." "Beyond a person, there is another; beyond the sky, there is another sky" means there is always someone more excellent than oneself. Except for the Buddha, no one is first. Moreover, all Buddhas are equal in the Way; there is no "first" Buddha. All Buddhas are equally supreme honored ones; thus, there is no distinction of first or second among them. Bodhisattvas cannot be first; there are always beings higher and wiser than a bodhisattva. Ordinary people are even less capable of being first. Therefore, there is truly nothing worth competing for in the world; the more one competes, the less likely one is to be first. Because a mind that competes has already fallen into a lower state. Only one who competes not at all, whose mind is lofty, vast, and empty, can reach the summit.

To eliminate emotional attachment psychology, one must rely on great wisdom and meditative concentration (dhyana power). Settle the mind and contemplate deeply and subtly; then one can know that all dharmas are like dreams, illusions, bubbles, and shadows—so what is there to cling to? Think carefully: What is there in this world? What is real? What is worth clinging to? What is worth competing for? What is worth being troubled by? Only the Buddha Dharma is worth dedicating one's mind to, worth striving and devoting effort to. But striving against others to become a Buddha actually hinders Buddhahood; the speed of practice slows down, thus delaying one's own Buddhahood. Besides the matter of attaining Buddhahood, nothing else is worth clinging to or being troubled by. Yet, even the clinging and trouble regarding Buddhahood must be eliminated before one can finally become a Buddha.

III. What are Afflictive Hindrances and Habitual Defilements

Afflictive hindrances (xing zhang) are afflictions related to the mind-nature, corresponding to greed, hatred, and delusion, which obstruct one's path practice. Habitual defilements (fannao xiqi) are the inertial functions accumulated by the manas (intentional root) over beginningless kalpas. A fourth-fruit arhat (anagamin) can only eliminate the manifest activity of greed, hatred, and delusion afflictions but cannot eliminate the habitual inertia. Therefore, sometimes habits still inadvertently arise, but they pass very quickly, leaving no trace in the mind—one does not remain angry or resentful for a long time.

Ordinary people, however, allow afflictions to manifest fully. The specific manifestations are actions driven by greed, actions driven by hatred, and actions driven by delusion—direct expressions and outflows of the inner afflictive nature of greed, hatred, and delusion. Habitual inertia is like a car continuing to move forward due to momentum after braking; it doesn't stop immediately, but this force is relatively small. This "distance traveled" corresponds to the practice process from the first bodhisattva ground (bhumi) to the eighth bhumi. Before the first bhumi, it's the manifest activity of afflictions; afflictions are not fully severed. Before the third fruit (anagamin), without attaining the first dhyana, greed, hatred, and delusion afflictions are suppressed, not severed at all. After attaining the first dhyana, one gradually begins to sever afflictions.

Those who have not realized the mind's nature (mingxin jianxing) nor attained any fruition (zheng guo), even if they cultivate the four dhyanas and eight samadhis, cannot sever afflictions; they are merely suppressed. When their concentration later regresses, all afflictions will manifest again. Therefore, the merit of attaining fruition and realizing the mind's nature is immense; it enables sentient beings to sever afflictions, transcend the suffering of birth and death, and attain great ease in life after life.

IV. How Afflictive Hindrances Affect Blessings (Fude)

A person is like a magnetic field, able to influence surrounding people, events, and objects. A compassionate and gentle nature brings a peaceful atmosphere to the surroundings, influencing everything, thus generating blessings (fude). Conversely, heavy greed, hatred, and delusion, with a rough temperament, disturb the surrounding magnetic field, disturb people's minds, causing others inner unrest, thus depleting one's own blessings.

Poor meditative concentration (dhyana) arises for several reasons: insufficient blessings (fude), heavy greed causing many preoccupations and inability to let go—heavy greed leads to incessant thoughts, affecting concentration; another reason is heavy hatred—hatred causes many unresolved matters in the mind; hatred obstructs concentration most severely, especially preventing the attainment of the first dhyana.

The Buddha said that afflictive hindrances like greed and hatred obstruct concentration, while arrogance (manas) obstructs the path most severely, hindering the arising of all wholesome dharmas. Subduing afflictions through practice is extremely important. Afflictions not only obstruct oneself but also severely affect others, affect groups, affect everything around, and diminish one's blessings. People with gentle dispositions and good cultivation have great blessings; those with great blessings make rapid progress on the path. A person's face is their complete feng shui; from it, one can see their cultivation, their mind-nature; a person's blessings and temperament are fully revealed.

Arrogance is deeply rooted and hard to subdue. Subtle arrogance is only severed by fourth-fruit arhats; those below the fourth fruit still possess arrogance. The manifestation of arrogance is not necessarily superficial; sometimes it is deeply hidden, dormant in the alaya-vijnana (storehouse consciousness), and for the vast majority, it has no opportunity to manifest because the conditions are not ripe, the prerequisites for arrogance are not present, and one has no special qualities compared to others—in fact, one is inferior, so arrogance does not easily show. Once conditions ripen, even with the slightest bit of "capital," arrogance immediately manifests. Even if one is far inferior to others, lacking the capital for arrogance, it can still manifest. For example, when a beggar crosses the street and a Lincoln car approaches, honking for him to move aside, he reluctantly moves. After the car passes, he curses behind it: "What's so great about driving a lousy car? When I have money, I'll drive a car more luxurious than yours." This is the manifestation of inferiority-based arrogance (卑劣慢). When such a person prospers in some life, their arrogance will be fully displayed. This is the nature of sentient beings. When certain people gain power in some aspect, arrogance soon appears. They may not notice it themselves, firstly due to mental coarseness, and secondly because they genuinely think they are quite good.

These afflictions are deeply rooted, brought over from countless kalpas, and very hard to subdue. Once subdued, wisdom increases rapidly, and practice progresses very quickly. Afflictions are the conditions that obstruct the path, obscuring the self-mind, preventing the seeing of light, leading to delusion and lack of wisdom. One cannot correctly understand others nor oneself. Greed attaches to states, hatred obstructs concentration, arrogance obstructs everything, especially obscuring the opening of wisdom—this is the most severe.

If disasters frequently occur in this world, if crops fail, it is related to ourselves. If wars break out frequently, if the world is in turmoil, it is also related to ourselves. All are summoned by our own minds. We should frequently examine our own minds, examine our own karmic obstructions, and find our own faults. When people's minds are turbulent, greed and hatred blaze fiercely, the country becomes unsettled, and the world follows suit. Cultivate the mind well, and everything in the world will change; practice can change everything. A blessed person dwells in a blessed land; a blessed land is inhabited by blessed people. As long as you have virtue and blessings, you need not fear calamities befalling you; moreover, you can bring peace and harmony to the world or your surroundings. Practice is the master key; there is no knot it cannot untie, no river it cannot cross. Everyone, examine your own mind-nature diligently!

V. What is the Definition of Affliction (Fannao)?

Some say worry, fear, distress are afflictions; pain is affliction; disappointment and frustration are afflictions; illness and suffering are afflictions; inner unhappiness is affliction. Then, is happiness an affliction? In Buddhism, afflictions are defined as greed, hatred, delusion, arrogance, doubt, and wrong views (tan, chen, chi, man, yi, ejian). These are the afflictions we need to sever through practice. Once severed, one becomes a third or fourth fruit person (anagamin or arhat). Only when afflictions are completely severed can one attain nirvana and coolness (liberation). If afflictions are strictly defined, an unquiet mind, a non-tranquil mind, is affliction.

Happiness is also affliction. Often, happiness is an expression of the affliction of greed and attachment. When happy, the mind is noisy and not tranquil; the scattered mind cannot contemplate the Dharma. If the mind does not abide in the Dharma, the principles are not understood, and one cannot gain the benefit of the Dharma. So what benefit is there in being happy for a lifetime? Heavenly beings (devas) are very happy; one day for them equals hundreds or even thousands of years in the human realm. But because of their happiness, time passes quickly, their lifespan soon expires, and they must be reborn in the human realm or the three evil paths. While devas, due to their happiness, they are unwilling to study the Dharma, gain no benefit from the Dharma, and thus wastefully enjoy thousands of years of happiness.

Therefore, we who study and practice Buddhism should not just seek happiness. We should find ways to cultivate more blessings (fude) and provisions (资粮, ziliang) for precepts, concentration, and wisdom (戒定慧, jie ding hui). Only by perfecting these provisions can we attain the corresponding path-fruits (道果, daoguo) and gain true Dharma benefits. Otherwise, every day is just showing off with words, like "talking about food doesn't fill the stomach." No matter how excellent the Dharma is, it is not yours. Even if originally a Buddha, you can only remain an ordinary being, endlessly cycling in birth and death.

VI. Sentient beings have lower afflictions (下烦恼) and higher afflictions (上烦恼). Lower afflictions are greed, hatred, delusion, arrogance, doubt, and wrong views. These afflictions are completely severed by fourth-fruit arhats. Higher afflictions are those that should be severed by bodhisattvas on the path of cultivation after enlightenment (开悟, kaiwu), afflictions not corresponding to greed, hatred, and delusion. Bodhisattvas from the first ground (初地, chudi) upwards gradually begin to sever them. This affliction is also called 尔焰 (eryan, Jñeya - objects of knowledge/obscurations to omniscience), meaning contemplating how to become a Buddha, how to cultivate the wisdom of the path (道种智, daozhongzhi), how to attain greater wisdom, how to understand certain deeper dharmas, how to cultivate and realize various contemplations (观行, guanxing), how to advance ground by ground (地地增上), how to attain the fruition of Buddhahood and perfect enlightenment (菩提, puti), etc. It also includes how to refute non-Buddhist and heterodox dharmas, how to guide sentient beings onto the right path, etc. Without the mind to save sentient beings from wrong views, without the mind to liberate sentient beings, one is not a true bodhisattva and is not qualified to enter the first ground and the Tathagata's family (如来家, rulai jia). These eryan arise and cease with cultivation; old ones are constantly extinguished, new ones constantly arise. Only when the higher afflictions are completely severed can one accomplish the Buddha Way.

VII. Unwholesome thoughts arising in the mind should be concealed and not spoken out. If one speaks out what should not be said, unwholesome words, brazenly, it indicates very heavy afflictions within, uncontrollable, and an inner self that considers itself important, believing others should obey and revolve around "me." As practice progresses, afflictions should gradually lessen, and those unwholesome thoughts within should cease to arise; only then is there progress in practice. If the inner self is very heavy, severing the view of self (断我见, duan wojian) becomes extremely difficult.

Practice requires constant attention to examining and introspecting the self within one's mind, seeing whether it diminishes and shrinks daily and monthly. If it remains as strong and irreversible as before, then practice has not gained power and is not on the right track. If severing the view of self feels difficult, then realizing the mind (明心, mingxin) is even harder, as realizing the mind requires higher blessings and conditions, demanding a better mind-nature from the bodhisattva. Those with a heavy self-mind find it hard to accumulate blessings; a selfless mind accords with the Tathagatagarbha (如来藏, rulai zang), making future bodhisattva path practice very rapid.

VIII. Current sentient beings almost all have very deep greed, hatred, and delusion afflictions, yet they remain unaware. However, greed, hatred, and delusion create boundless evil karma, and the future for most is basically the three evil paths; the hope of being reborn human again is very slim. Sentient beings create greed, hatred, and delusion karma because of ignorance (无明, wuming); and precisely because of ignorance, they do not know it is evil karma. The value of a person lies in self-knowledge. Without studying the Dharma, without understanding cause and effect, one dwells in ignorance. Or, even after studying the Dharma, still not understanding cause and effect, not knowing that all one's bodily, verbal, and mental actions bear karmic fruit, thus acting recklessly without the slightest regard for consequences. Judging the right or wrong of matters by oneself is inaccurate; one must rely on the principles taught by the Buddha. Sentient beings, since beginningless kalpas, have created vast evil karma, cycling endlessly in the six paths. The chance to obtain a human body is minuscule; therefore, most do not know how to be human, do not understand the principles of being human, and cannot introspect their own greed, hatred, and delusion afflictions.

The Buddha used an analogy for the chance of sentient beings obtaining a human body: In a vast, turbulent ocean, there is a turtle. Floating on the sea is a piece of wood with a hole just large enough for the turtle's head to poke through. The chance of this turtle, amidst the wind and waves, poking its head through that hole is extremely small. The Buddha said the chance of obtaining a human body is that small. Once, the Buddha scooped up some soil from the ground and then discarded it. He asked the assembly: "Is the soil on my fingernail more, or the soil of the great earth more?" The disciples answered: "The soil of the great earth is more." The Buddha said: "The chance of sentient beings obtaining a human body is as little as the soil on my fingernail; the chance of not obtaining a human body is as vast as the soil of the great earth."

The Buddha said in the Agama sutras that sentient beings spend the vast majority of time in the three evil paths. When a portion of the karma for the three evil paths is exhausted, a small remnant of blessings allows them to regain a human body. While human, if they do not act well and create much evil karma, after death they fall back into the evil paths. In the three evil paths, time in hell is counted in kalpas; time as a hungry ghost is also counted in kalpas; as an animal, each type of animal life lasts at least five hundred lifetimes. Only after the evil karma is exhausted do they return to the human realm. Therefore, we see that the vast majority of people do not know how to be human; their human virtue is poor precisely because they spent too long in the three evil paths, with no chance to perform human deeds, so they do not know how to be human. We, having obtained a human body in this life and encountered the Buddha Dharma, truly should practice diligently to avoid those long kalpas of suffering. Why create evil deeds to satisfy one's greed, hatred, and delusion afflictions? Wise people should calm their minds and contemplate, compare, consider how to spend this life, consider how to avoid suffering in the future, to solve the greatest problem of birth, death, and distress.

IX. Everyone has dormant afflictions (随眠烦恼, suimian fannao) they are unaware of or find hard to observe, which only manifest under certain conditions. Should these dormant afflictions be brought to manifestation by actively participating in social activities, or is it better to practice alone behind closed doors, preventing their manifestation?

Dormant afflictions mainly refer to habitual afflictions. Greed, hatred, delusion, arrogance, doubt, and wrong views are afflictions. Without the first dhyana (初禅, chuchan), without attaining the third fruit (三果, sanguo), these afflictions cannot be severed; they manifest when conditions arise, though some people have lighter, some heavier manifestations. The meaning of dormant afflictions is that habitual afflictions lie dormant in the mind-consciousness (识心, shixin), hard to detect. This habit is severed starting from the first bodhisattva ground (初地菩萨, chudi pusa); ordinary beings and arhats do not yet have the ability to sever it. If manifest afflictions are too heavy, one should cultivate more meditative concentration (禅定, chanding) and contemplate the principle of selflessness (无我之理, wuwo zhi li). If one cannot detect them oneself but still wishes to subdue them, one must temper oneself more among people, and when others point them out, be able to listen and be good at complying. If one cannot bear others pointing them out and instead gives rise to hatred, creating evil actions, then in such cases, one should go among people less. If not, then go among people more to introspect one's bodily, verbal, and mental actions, humbly listening to others' admonitions.

Subduing and severing afflictions both occur amidst encountering conditions and objects (历缘对境, liyuan duijing). When afflictions arise, reflect inward (回光返照, huiguang fanzhao) and sever them immediately. If one stays away from people, afflictions are not easily provoked and thus not discovered; then afflictions remain hidden in the mind, with no opportunity for severance. When one goes to other Buddha lands, which are all favorable conditions, afflictions have no chance to arise, making severance difficult and practice slow. Although one lives comfortably, progress on the path is very slow.

X. If a person has high emotional intelligence (EQ) and high intelligence (IQ), understands human relations and worldly affairs very well, it indicates that this person, over beginningless kalpas, has lived slightly longer among humans than others, or lived slightly longer in the three good paths (三善道, sanshandao), is familiar with the human living environment, is good at understanding human psychology, and comprehends human relations and worldly affairs, excelling at being human and handling affairs. Their manas, having been habituated to human affairs for a relatively long time, has a mind-nature corresponding to humans. Even if their previous life was in the animal realm, they were reborn in an animal species relatively close to humans, able to be near humans and understand human psychology. For example, animals like cats and dogs, living with humans, understand human psychology and habits. When reborn human, they understand human relations and worldly affairs, are clever in being human and handling affairs, even socially adept. The longer a sentient being stays in a certain realm, the heavier the habits of that realm. Therefore, by observing a person's habits, one can know which realm they belonged to in their previous life, from which realm they were reborn. This illustrates that the manas of sentient beings is susceptible to influence (受熏染, shou xunran) and will manifest the seeds influenced. Therefore, if we are long influenced by the Buddha Dharma, the Mahayana Dharma, the Tathagatagarbha Dharma, seeds will be planted, and one day these seeds will manifest, blossom, and bear fruit.

XI. When afflictions arise in the mind, we should calmly observe them, investigate them, probe where they manifested from, what their source is, and why this affliction manifested. Then analyze the cause of the affliction's manifestation and resolve that cause. The mind should constantly contemplate that cause, then analyze whether that cause is worth giving rise to affliction, what the consequences of giving rise to these afflictions are, and how much they solve. Then recall how many afflictions we have given rise to from childhood to adulthood, how those afflictions were resolved, how they disappeared, and what the final result was. Then contemplate how many afflictions and distresses we have had over countless kalpas in past lives; those distresses and afflictions were our karmic retribution, which passed once repaid. The afflictions of this life are the same; they will pass no matter what. Why not view these afflictions correctly, untie the knots in the heart, and resolve them according to principle?

We should contemplate that every Buddhist practitioner is a bodhisattva. The duty of a bodhisattva is to widely practice the bodhisattva path; thus, one cannot always be immersed in the small self's afflictions. We must broaden our minds, look to the future; our future is to practice the bodhisattva path widely for countless kalpas, in the Buddha lands of the ten directions, liberating limitless beings. A bodhisattva's mind should not harbor personal greed, hatred, or delusion afflictions; it can only have higher afflictions arising from the desire to attain higher realizations in the Dharma, afflictions arising from how to better teach sentient beings, afflictions arising from how to make the true Dharma endure forever. As long as the mind constantly contemplates the future practice of the bodhisattva path, it will not be bound by the small afflictions before the eyes; the mind's capacity will broaden, and the heart will open. Looking to the future is extremely important!

XII. Leakage (漏, lou) refers to afflictions like greed, hatred, and arrogance. Leakless (无漏, wulou) means these afflictions are eliminated and extinguished. Conditioned (有为, youwei) means having activity, functioning, action, including bodily, verbal, and mental actions. Unconditioned (无为, wuwei) means no mental activity, no action, no bodily, verbal, or mental actions, non-functioning. The eighth consciousness (第八识, diba shi - Alaya-vijnana) is leakage-free and affliction-free; it is an unconditioned dharma. Within the three realms (三界, sanjie), it has no mental activity, no bodily or verbal actions; it creates nothing; it is the self-nature pure mind (自性清净心, zixing qingjing xin).

However, it also has conditioned aspects. It transmits the seeds of the seven consciousnesses, stores karmic seeds, transmits karmic seeds, manifests all dharmas—this is its conditioned part. Without this conditioned part, our five aggregates (五阴, wuyin) could not exist. It is purely selfless dedication to the five aggregates. We should diligently learn from this conditioned dharma. We should learn to rely upon and transform into its pure, unconditioned nature, and even more learn from its selfless dedication without seeking reward. Once we learn these two aspects well and completely succeed in relying upon and transforming, our practice will reach its endpoint.

The prerequisite for severing afflictions is severing the view of self (断我见, duan wojian). After attaining the first dhyana, one begins to sever the affliction of greed; once hatred affliction is also severed, one becomes a third-fruit person (三果人, sanguo ren). When greed, hatred, delusion, and arrogance afflictions are completely severed, one becomes a fourth-fruit arhat (四果罗汉, siguo luohan). Non-Buddhists (外道, waidao) practice without severing the view of self. No matter how pure their minds seem, it is merely suppressing afflictions, not severing them. Therefore, they do not transcend the six paths of rebirth; after their concentration power regresses, afflictions will arise again. Thus, relying solely on concentration cultivation cannot lead to liberation from birth and death; it must be combined with the wisdom of severing the view of self, relying on wisdom to transcend the suffering of birth and death.

Leakless conditioned dharmas refer, firstly, to the leakage-free functioning of the eighth consciousness within the five-aggregate body, and secondly, to the actions of leakage-free saints (圣人, shengren). Leakage-conditioned dharmas are the actions of those below the third fruit, especially the actions of ordinary beings. Leakage-unconditioned dharmas refer to those who have not severed afflictions entering a concentration where the mental consciousness also ceases, with no bodily, verbal, or mental actions—this is called leakage-unconditioned dharma. Only the state of no-thought concentration (无想定, wuxiang ding) is like this.

XIII. The Difference Between Subduing Afflictions and Severing Afflictions

The seeds of the seven consciousnesses themselves are pure and affliction-free. It is the mental factors (心所法, xinsuofa) accompanying the operation of the seven consciousnesses that manifest afflictive nature. The so-called good and evil nature refers to the good and evil nature of the mental factors of consciousness. Mental factors accompany the operation of the seven consciousnesses. When the seven consciousnesses are pure, it is the eleven wholesome mental factors (善十一心所法, shan shiyi xinsuofa) accompanying them. When the seven consciousnesses are defiled, it is the afflictive mental factors (烦恼心所法, fannao xinsuofa) accompanying them.

After cultivation, the seven consciousnesses themselves do not change; it is the mental factors that continuously change. When the mental factors are not thoroughly and ultimately changed, the seven consciousnesses merely subdue afflictions, which will still manifest under conditions later. When the seven consciousnesses transform into wisdom (转识成智, zhuan shi cheng zhi), the mental factors have already changed; afflictive mental factors are severed, wholesome mental factors increase and manifest. This belongs to third and fourth fruit people; afflictions are severed, not in a state of suppression or subdual. There is a qualitative difference between subduing/suppressing afflictions and severing them. When subduing/suppressing, afflictions merely do not manifest but still exist. Severing afflictions means pulling them out by the roots; they cease to exist and will not manifest again in the future. This is the state of third and fourth fruit people.

Therefore, subduing the five hindrances (五盖, wugai) and severing afflictions also have an essential difference. Subduing the five hindrances means afflictions still exist but do not manifest; at this point, the first dhyana can arise. After the first dhyana arises, relying on this concentration power, first sever the affliction of greed. Please remember: severing is not subduing. After greed affliction is severed, gradually sever hatred affliction. The time between severing greed and hatred varies by individual. Please remember: this is severing hatred affliction, not subduing or suppressing hatred affliction. There is a qualitative difference between the two. Hatred affliction is harder to sever than greed affliction. Only when hatred affliction is completely severed is one a true third-fruit person. This is the process and detail of severing afflictions: first subdue/suppress, preventing manifestation, then, under the power of concentration, cut off the afflictions.

Of course, this cannot be separated from wisdom. The so-called wisdom is the wisdom of severing the view of self, the wisdom knowing the five aggregates are not-self. Without this realization and attainment, it belongs to subduing/suppressing afflictions. All non-Buddhists who cultivate the four dhyanas and eight samadhis are like this. Therefore, those non-Buddhists often have quite good character; they do not let afflictions manifest. But since afflictions are not eradicated at the root, in future lives when concentration power fades, afflictions will still manifest. At that time, they are still cycling in the six paths, perhaps even falling into the three evil paths. This is the difference between having the wisdom of severing the view of self and not having it.

XIV. When a person has a mind of arrogance (轻慢心, qingman xin), not only do spoken words become seeds of evil karma, bearing future retribution, but even expressions representing arrogance become karmic seeds, bearing retribution later. Even mental thoughts and perceptions become seeds stored, bearing retribution later because the mind-ground is defiled, making the karmic seeds impure.

For every instance where arrogance has arisen, regardless of the form, one should repent promptly. To avoid future retribution, any cost to make amends is worthwhile. There are mental actions more severe than arrogance; one should repent even more to avoid major retribution in future lives, such as deception and lies, intentional deception and malicious lies—all should be repented promptly. Small causes yield great results; these matters are no trivial affair; karmic retribution is real.

In the past, a novice monk (小沙弥, xiao shami) said of a monastic master, "He eats like an ox chewing grass." For this, he became an ox for five hundred lifetimes. If the oral karma of monastics is that severe, how much more severe is the oral karma of laypeople speaking of monastics? Everyone should examine themselves; repent of even the slightest fault to avoid future retribution and regret when it's too late. Nowadays, many people slander the Three Jewels (三宝, sanbao), not a small number, and do so openly, brazenly, righteously, unreasonably, inconceivably. These people may fall into hell to undergo retribution. If one had psychic powers and could visit hell once, they would know that the beings in hell are not all murderers and arsonists; many are Buddhist practitioners who created great evil karma, unaware they were creating evil karma at the time. Some even thought it was good karma, thinking it was nothing. Among these people, many consider themselves quite accomplished practitioners.

As long as greed, hatred, and delusion afflictions are not severed, it is possible to create evil karma. Especially Buddhists, stirred by those they trust, their heads become hot, and they dare to do anything, thinking it's fine, unaware the future retribution is extremely heavy. The more revered a being is in the world, the more beneficial to sentient beings, the greater the sin of creating evil karma against them. Buddhists must first understand cause and effect, be careful with bodily, verbal, and mental actions, not create evil karma, not undergo evil retribution—this is the wise person. Those who truly understand cause and effect, who deeply believe in and accept cause and effect, are almost at the first bodhisattva ground (初地菩萨, chudi pusa). Bodhisattvas before the grounds (地前菩萨, diqian pusa) cannot yet fully believe in and accept cause and effect, let alone ordinary beings. Because those who can realize the Tathagatagarbha, who directly perceive its functioning, know that bodily, verbal, and mental actions are instantaneously stored in the Tathagatagarbha without omission; retribution is unavoidable, thus there is no room for luck.

Frequently reading the accounts of cause and effect in the Buddhist sutras can increase understanding of cause and effect, making bodily, verbal, and mental actions very cautious. People whose heads are frequently hot, irrational, are everywhere; the evil habits from beginningless kalpas are too deep and heavy, hard to restrain. Know what you know; don't know what you don't know. Regarding what you don't understand, do not easily comment or evaluate; don't be overconfident. Overconfident people often suffer losses; they bring loss upon themselves. Overconfident people have a strong self; ultimately, creating evil karma, undergoing evil retribution, is still because of the inner self. That self, not subdued, will constantly emerge to create evil karma.

Feeling superior inside is arrogance (我慢, wǒmàn), is having a self. As long as the mind recognizes even a tiny dharma as self, it is arrogance. Arrogance is the hardest to sever; it's hard to detect oneself because it's too habitual, often unconscious, naturally manifested. Most people have very heavy arrogance; very few can realize their own arrogance. Because concentration power is insufficient, wisdom is inadequate, one cannot introspect one's obvious or hidden arrogance. If no one points it out, it will be allowed to develop.

XV. Under What Circumstances Can Afflictions and Ignorance Be Severed?

Sentient beings, lacking psychic powers, have very limited knowledge, narrow horizons, and small vision. The mind-consciousness is restricted by the five-aggregate body, by afflictions and habits, and by karmic obstructions. Many things are unknown, unseen, unrealized—this is ignorance (无明, wuming). Only when ignorance is completely severed does one become a Buddha. Many wish to avoid situations and people to gradually sever afflictions and ignorance. But ignorance and karmic obstructions are precisely severed through contact with people and affairs, through doing things. If afflictions do not arise, ignorance does not arise, one cannot apply attention (作意, zuoyi) and contemplate the arising of afflictions, and thus cannot sever them. In interpersonal interactions, encountering unpleasant matters, being able to endure, to step back, is very difficult. Severing afflictions and habits requires enduring adverse conditions, then one can sever them. Some favorable conditions also require endurance without becoming complacent, then one can sever attachment to favorable conditions. Without conditions, one cannot sever afflictions because the deep-seated afflictions within are unseen; if afflictions do not arise, they cannot be cut off, cannot be uprooted.

XVI. Self-clinging (我执, wozhi) is the clinging and unwillingness to let go of the five-aggregate self. Severing self-clinging brings liberation; one is not bound by the five aggregates, not bound by the eighteen dhatus, not bound by any dharma in the three realms. With wisdom, one transcends the three realms. This is the state of fourth-fruit arhats. After severing self-clinging, they no longer cling to the five-aggregate self; at life's end, they can extinguish themselves and enter the remainderless nirvana (无余涅槃, wuyu niepan).

Dharma-clinging (法执, fazhi), also called dharma-self-clinging (法我执, fa wozhi), is clinging to the idea that within all dharmas derived from the combination of aggregates, sense bases, and elements (蕴处界, yun chu jie), there is a self or what belongs to self. Ground-level bodhisattvas (地上菩萨, dishang pusa) realize one part of the patience with the non-arising of dharmas (无生法忍, wusheng faren), thus realizing one part of the non-self of dharmas (法无我, fa wuwo), severing one part of dharma-clinging. Ground-level bodhisattvas, because they must retain afflictions to moisten rebirth (留惑润生, liu huo run sheng) and preserve the five-aggregate body, intentionally do not completely sever self-clinging and begin to sever dharma-clinging. They realize that within all dharmas derived from the combination of aggregates, sense bases, and elements, there is no self and nothing belonging to self. Only when dharma-clinging is completely severed does one perfectly accomplish Buddhahood.

XVII. Afflictive doubt (有烦恼性的疑, you fannao xing de yi), such as clinging to self, having arrogance, having view-grasping (见取见, jianqujian), causes groundless suspicion of others and other dharmas, clinging to one's own views and opinions as correct, thinking one's own wrong is right, others' right is wrong. Because of afflictions and delusion, not believing and accepting the Buddha's words, one groundlessly doubts the teacher and the Dharma. Arhats have severed this doubt; they do not doubt the Buddha, the Dharma, or the Teacher. However, this non-doubt pertains to the Hinayana path of realization; regarding the Mahayana Dharma, they have immeasurable doubts unresolved. These doubts are not related to greed, hatred, or delusion afflictions; they are purely not understanding Mahayana principles—this is indeterminate doubt (无记疑, wuji yi). The Buddha severed all doubts; nothing was unclear; He realized All-Wisdom (一切种智, yiqie zhongzhi).

It is said that Sravakas (声闻, shengwen) are weary of extensive learning (多闻, duowen) because they do not delight in the Mahayana Dharma, content with the small vehicle liberation path they themselves practice and realize; having attained a liberated mind, they are satisfied. Pratyekabuddhas (缘觉, yuanjue) are weary of contemplation (思惟, siwei). They trace the twelve links of dependent origination (十二因缘法, shi'er yinyuan fa) inversely to the eighth consciousness, the Alaya-vijnana (阿赖耶识, alaiyeshi), knowing all dharmas arise from it, but do not arouse the mind to continue contemplating to realize it, content with realizing dependent arising dharmas, satisfied with being able to transcend birth and death. Bodhisattvas, however, are not weary of contemplation and observation (思惟观行, siwei guanxing); they practice courageously and diligently, investigating All-Wisdom, finally accomplishing the Buddha Way.

Sravakas and Pratyekabuddhas have the wisdom of liberation from the five aggregates, but it is not perfectly pure. They know all dharmas are empty, realizing the wisdom of the all (一切智, yiqie zhi), but their capacity is inferior; they only wish for their own liberation, to transcend rebirth, not generating the great bodhi mind, not caring about sentient beings' suffering, not wishing to accomplish the Buddha Way. The Buddha's wisdom is pure; His capacity is immense, His mind vast and magnanimous, vowing to liberate all beings. Sravakas and Pratyekabuddhas' conduct is impure; they act only for personal liberation, not widely practicing the bodhisattva's six paramitas, ten paramitas, and myriad practices to greatly benefit beings. Even for accomplishing beings, they won't violate even minor precepts, fearing it might prevent them from entering nirvana and attaining liberation; everything they do is only for their own liberation. The Buddha, when a bodhisattva, for the sake of beings, would rather commit killing karma or sexual misconduct karma, would rather fall into hell himself, to save beings. All He did was never for Himself. Sravakas and Pratyekabuddhas practice for themselves; their actions are limited. The Buddha, through three great asamkhyeya kalpas of practice, the six paramitas, ten paramitas, myriad practices—His actions are immeasurable and boundless, liberating countless beings.