Chapter 4: The Distinction Between Mahayana and Hinayana

1. How to Understand Emptiness?

In the process of Buddhist practice, through prolonged and extensive observation, as the wisdom of understanding human affairs and the principles of phenomena increases, one's thoughts and views will change. When views change, attitudes change; when attitudes change, actions change; when actions change, karma changes; when karma changes, retribution changes; when retribution changes, liberation is attained. With wisdom, one can fully and effectively recognize the emptiness and illusoriness of all dharmas, no longer clinging to or grasping at them. When the world is seen as empty and tranquil, the mind becomes peaceful, and liberation is achieved. When one recognizes emptiness, everything in the world will seem insignificant; worldly affairs can be passed over perfunctorily, and whether there is benefit or loss in the secular realm becomes unimportant. What matters is that the mind is empty, body, speech, and mind are transformed, one no longer creates karma arising from greed, hatred, and delusion, and the retribution becomes wholesome. If one still fails to recognize emptiness, the sense of "self" remains in the mind; where there is "self," there are afflictions and karmic afflictions.      

Emptiness can be understood gradually from three aspects. The deepest understanding comes from the perspective of the Tathagatagarbha, but without realizing the Tathagagarbha, one cannot recognize emptiness. A relatively deeper understanding comes from the perspective of the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination and the Four Noble Truths. The most superficial understanding of emptiness comes from the perspective of worldly phenomena; this is the accumulation of experience and worldly intelligence, the wisdom of worldly sages. It is, of course, far from ultimate, but still better than those without wisdom who cling to existence. The most thorough and ultimate understanding is to recognize all dharmas from the perspective of the functional roles of the seven great seeds within the Tathagatagarbha. In this way, emptiness reaches an absolute extremity; even emptiness is empty, the emptiness of emptiness is also empty, transcending all mind and objects, rendering all dharmas and objects superfluous. At this point, there is nothing left to say; whatever is spoken is not it, beyond conceptualization and verbal expression.

2. The Difference in the Emptiness Realized by Mahayana and Hinayana

The emptiness of the five aggregates realized by Hinayana practitioners is fundamentally different from that realized by Mahayana practitioners. Precisely because of this difference, the mental capacity, vows, and spiritual attainments of Mahayana and Hinayana practitioners differ. After liberation, Hinayana practitioners enter the state of Nirvana without residue, while Mahayana practitioners, after liberation, never enter Nirvana without residue. The emptiness of the five aggregates realized by Hinayana practitioners is attained through observing external phenomena, by observing the birth, abiding, change, and cessation of the phenomena of the five aggregates. This emptiness is not ultimate, not thorough, and is biased; hence, their wisdom is shallow, and their vows and practices are also shallow. The emptiness of the five aggregates realized by Mahayana practitioners is attained from the essential nature of the five aggregates. Seeing that the essence of the five aggregates is born from the Tathagatagarbha, they no longer cling to the five aggregates, nor do they seek ways to extinguish them; thus, their vows and practices are vast.

For example, some people, upon seeing a person born and then dying, will know that humans are impermanent, subject to cessation, cannot be grasped, and are therefore empty. Others, however, not only see this but also perceive that this person is actually conjured by an illusionist, with birth and death controlled by the illusionist; even after death, the illusionist can conjure another. Birth and death are both illusory. These people no longer cling to this illusory person, but they also do not deliberately avoid or reject it.

In fact, the emptiness perceived by Hinayana practitioners is an emptiness opposed to existence, which is still another form of existence. Precisely because the Hinayana emptiness remains at the level of superficial phenomena and is not substantive emptiness, they all strive to eliminate and avoid it, fearing the world of the five aggregates. This is another form of existence. If one is truly empty, what is there to avoid? What is there to fear? Then one would not strive to eliminate it. For instance, when heavenly maidens scatter flowers, Hinayana practitioners fear the flowers touching their bodies, so they avoid the flowers and shake them off, considering it improper for flowers to touch the body. Mahayana practitioners pay no heed to these flowers; being covered in flowers is inconsequential, so the flowers do not cling to them.

Why do Mahayana Bodhisattvas have such an attitude? Because Bodhisattvas know that flowers are illusory appearances without any substantive effect; the physical body is also like this. An illusory body and illusory flowers—what obstruction could there be? What impropriety? One needs to personally realize these dharmas through direct experience to comprehend them. Without realization, even with deep understanding, one cannot reach the true state; the mind and conduct cannot become empty. Hinayana practitioners believe there is indeed an emptiness, while Mahayana practitioners believe that even emptiness is empty, the emptiness of emptiness is also empty; only when emptiness is exhausted is one truly home.

3. The Distinction Between Mahayana and Hinayana Emptiness

The statement "All dharmas are empty" has two meanings. One meaning, from the Hinayana perspective, refers to the emptiness of the world of the five aggregates; this is relatively shallow in level and narrow in scope, not encompassing all dharmas. The other meaning, from the Mahayana perspective, refers to the emptiness of the world of the five aggregates and the emptiness of all dharmas; this is progressively deeper, fundamental emptiness, substantive emptiness, ultimate emptiness, reaching complete and thorough emptiness, encompassing all dharmas without the slightest omission. Hinayana teaches the suffering, emptiness, impermanence, and non-self of the world of the five aggregates. This emptiness refers to dharmas that are subject to birth, cessation, change, and impermanence—whatever arises will change and even cease, cannot abide permanently or long; dharmas that arise and cease are dharmas without self. This is the Hinayana emptiness.

The Mahayana emptiness is realized after attaining the Tathagatagarbha, through direct perception observing that the world of the five aggregates and all dharmas are manifestations produced by the Tathagatagarbha; therefore, they are all empty, and these dharmas are also impermanent, changing, and unreal. Clearly, the Mahayana emptiness is more fundamental, ultimate, and thorough, clarifying the principle of emptiness. From the perspective of the Ground-level Bodhisattvas' Consciousness-Only wisdom, all objects seen before the eyes are manifestations of the mind; the dharmas thus produced are illusory and unreal. It is like a magician conjuring a bouquet of flowers out of thin air; although the bouquet exists phenomenally, it is substantively empty and non-existent; its existence is a false appearance. Mahayana expounds the emptiness, falsity, and middle way of all dharmas in the world, while the Hinayana emptiness is relatively shallow, lacking the aspect of falsity and the middle way. It merely observes the impermanence, change, and instability of worldly dharmas, without recognizing the illusory falsity, failing to grasp the substance of dharmas; its observational wisdom is relatively shallow.

Whether in Mahayana or Hinayana practice, the aim is to eradicate the ignorance of the seventh consciousness and the five aggregates, enabling the seventh consciousness and five aggregates to possess the wisdom of emptiness. If one studies many dharmas, has rich theories, and can write numerous debate treatises, yet the mind is not empty, treating all learned theories as real dharmas, this is acquiring knowledge, not cultivation; it runs counter to practice.

Especially in studying Mahayana, if one indulges in profound and interesting theories, constantly absorbing knowledge, diligently exploring and researching, organizing and categorizing, analyzing meticulously, grasping all dharmas manifested by the Tathagatagarbha as real dharmas, clinging to existence without emptiness—this is not cultivation. Cultivation is based on realizing emptiness through theory to eradicate ignorance, transforming the mind's conduct and nature. The mind's nature can only change when the mind is empty; when the mind's nature changes, its conduct can follow, and retribution can turn from unwholesome to wholesome. Every learner must remember that the purpose of learning Buddhism is to attain an empty mind. When the mind is empty, one returns to the source. Cultivation is not scholarship, not accumulating knowledge or researching theories. Therefore, one cannot cling to principle and neglect practice; principle and practice must be unified, harmonized without obstruction.

4. The Difference in Realization Between Mahayana and Hinayana

Severing the view of self is the practice of observing the principle of the non-self of the five aggregates; it does not involve the eighth consciousness. Realizing the eighth consciousness requires studying Mahayana Prajna. After the consciousness has acquired considerable correct Prajna knowledge, one must engage in meditation (dhyana) and investigate the eighth consciousness to attain Mahayana realization. The methods and content of practice differ between Mahayana and Hinayana. After realization, the level and connotation of mental emptiness also differ. Hinayana severing the view of self realizes the emptiness and non-self of the five aggregates; it is an emptiness of mere non-existence. The emptiness after Mahayana realization includes the Hinayana emptiness of non-existence, and also includes the unique emptiness inherent in the realized eighth consciousness itself—knowing how the eighth consciousness itself is empty, and also being able to observe how the five-aggregate body born from it is empty. Therefore, the Mahayana emptiness is more ultimate than the Hinayana emptiness, closer to the truth, and more capable of revealing the true reality of the dharma realm. At the time of realization, the wisdom of the two differs greatly.

5. The Emptiness of Mahayana and Hinayana Are Not the Same State

The emptiness of Sravakas and Pratyekabuddhas and the emptiness of the Tathagatagarbha are two different states, vastly different, and must not be confused. The three kinds of emptiness of the Tathagatagarbha—whichever one—must be realized through attaining the Tathagatagarbha to be directly perceived; this is completely different from the Hinayana emptiness. The mental emptiness after realizing the Tathagatagarbha cannot be confused with the emptiness before realizing it; their nature is different, the state of mind is different. "The Bodhi is originally without a tree" represents the Hinayana emptiness; at this stage, the Tathagatagarbha has not yet been realized, it is not connected to the emptiness of the Tathagatagarbha. Later, upon hearing the Diamond Sutra speak of the five "How unexpected is the self-nature," one then realizes the Tathagatagarbha.

6. The Meaning of "Form is Impermanent, Suffering, Empty, Non-Self, and Empty Within"

Each dharma possesses meanings at different levels; people with different wisdom will naturally have different levels of understanding. Hinayana practitioners understand it as the emptiness of disintegration and destruction. Mahayana practitioners, in addition to this, add the emptiness of the Tathagatagarbha. Ground-level Bodhisattvas and the Buddha see form as the operation of the four great elements, even more profoundly empty. The very nature of form dharmas is emptiness; this profound principle absolutely cannot be observed or truly understood in its actual connotation by Bodhisattvas below the Grounds. The Buddhas observe form directly penetrating to its fundamental source. Newly awakened Bodhisattvas can only understand form as born from the empty eighth consciousness (Tathagatagarbha); their power of observation is weak, and understanding predominates.

However, "impermanent, suffering, empty, non-self" primarily refers to the Hinayana dharmas of disintegration and destruction. From the impermanence of form, one realizes form is suffering; then realizes form is impermanent and does not abide long; finally, one realizes form is not the unchanging, indestructible entity representing the self that we have mistakenly believed in since beginningless time.

7. The Practice Maps of Mahayana and Hinayana

The true starting point for practice is found in the Hinayana Satipatthana Sutra (Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness), which is the entry point for actual practice; the Zuochan Sanmei Jing (Sutra on the Samadhi of Sitting Meditation) is also such. The Mahayana Pitaputra-samagama Sutra (Sutra of the Meeting of Father and Son) is where the World-Honored One instructed his father to contemplate all dharmas as like a dream. It only discusses theory, as it is an introductory method for beginners, leading to a conceptual understanding of "like a dream," but not realization.

As for the practice maps of Mahayana and Hinayana, of course, one first contemplates to sever the view of self and attain the fruit (of Stream-Entry, etc.). Then one engages in Chan (Zen) investigation. The methods of Chan investigation, the methods for severing the view of self, and the methods for cultivating concentration have all been explained. Without severing the view of self, Chan investigation will yield no result; without success in Chan investigation, contemplating illusion (like a mirage) is out of the question; the third barrier of Chan and the barrier of the mirage, the contemplation of like a dream—all are out of reach. The dharmas practiced by Ground-level Bodhisattvas are even more beyond consideration. One can seek materials for study, but no matter how one practices, it is merely study; it absolutely cannot lead to realization. The sequence and path of practice are very clear: cultivate concentration, study theory, then contemplate to sever the view of self. After attaining the fruit, investigate Chan to illuminate the mind. Without achieving these, discussing anything else is useless. Those who are not of great or exceptionally great capacity cannot skip stages in practice. Only Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, or Arhats who have returned can do so; others cannot leap over, no matter how they try.

Bodhisattvas at the First Ground and above can fully comprehend Hinayana Buddhism. Regarding Mahayana, they comprehend only a part; the Buddha comprehends it all. Without realization, mere understanding can never be called comprehension. Because without realization, not a single dharma is penetrated; no state of wisdom is attained. As for transformation of the basis (asraya-paravrtti), without realization, it cannot occur. Only after realizing the eighth consciousness can one gradually transform the basis. When transformation of the basis is partially successful, the mind-ground changes, consciousness is transformed into wisdom—that is already the state of a Bodhisattva at the First Ground or above. Ordinary people cannot speak of transforming the basis; their mind-ground is filled with greed, hatred, and delusion; even the initial view of self has not been severed. Carrying a large sense of self, with such severe obscurations, what basis is there to transform?

Without meditative concentration (dhyana), one cannot attain stability even in reciting the Buddha's name or mantras; mindfulness of breathing cannot be sustained; if even basic dhyana cannot be cultivated, how can one have the capacity to contemplate the non-self of the five aggregates? How can one sever the view of self? How can one investigate Chan to illuminate the mind? Without illuminating the mind, discussing anything else is far too distant.