Section Two: Individual Delusory Perception and Collective Delusory Perception

I. Original Text: Ānanda. All sentient beings. Revolving within the cycle of the world. Arise from two kinds of inversion. The delusory perception of discrimination. Arising right where they are. Revolving due to their karma. What are these two perceptions? First, the individual delusory perception of sentient beings. Second, the collective delusory perception of sentient beings. What is meant by individual delusory perception?

Explanation: Ānanda, all sentient beings revolve within the cycle of the world due to two kinds of inversion, which produce delusory discriminatory perception. Right within this inverted delusory perception, karma arises, and due to karmic actions, they revolve within birth and death. What are the delusory perceptions revolving in discrimination? The first is the individual delusory perception of sentient beings' karma, and the second is the collective delusory perception of sentient beings. What is individual delusory perception?

This small section discusses the collective and individual karma of sentient beings. Whether collective or individual, all that sentient beings perceive—the universe, the world, mountains, rivers, and the great earth—are delusory perceptions. Individual karma is the karma of a single sentient being, or the karma of a group of sentient beings distinct from others. Collective karma is the shared karma of a group of sentient beings, or the common karma of all sentient beings in a region, a country, or the shared karma of sentient beings on a celestial body. Because sentient beings have individual karma and collective karma, all the living environments they see, the six dusts (objects of sense), are delusory perceptions. Delusory perception means falsely seeing the existence of all these realms, taking all these realms as real, when in fact they are not real, they do not truly exist.

Then, what should be seen if not delusory perception? If not delusory perception, one should perceive within the universe, within the realms of the six dusts, the wondrous function of one's own true suchness Buddha-nature, not the substantial existence of mountains, rivers, and the great earth. The mountains, rivers, great earth, living environments, and realms of the six dusts that sentient beings can see all belong to delusory perception. If one no longer perceives delusorily, one will be able to perceive, within all these appearances, the wondrous true suchness nature of oneself, perceive the wondrous function of one's own Buddha-nature, and no longer regard the six sense faculties, six dusts, and six consciousnesses as real. Sentient beings, failing to perceive the wondrous function of their own Buddha-nature, only delusorily perceive the mountains, rivers, great earth, lands, and the world as truly existing, only seeing these realms; therefore, it is called delusory perception. In truth, genuine perception is the perception of the Tathāgatagarbha (Buddha-nature storehouse). The perception that does not see realms is the true perception.

Original Text: Ānanda. Like a person in the world. Whose eyes have a red film (cataract). At night sees lights. And additionally perceives a circular reflection. With five colors overlapping. What do you think? This circular light appearing from the night lamp. Is it the color of the lamp? Or is it the color of perception? Ānanda. If this is the color of the lamp. Then why do people without eye disease not see it the same way? And this circular reflection. Is only seen by those with the film. If it is the color of perception. Then perception has already become color. Then what is that which the person with the film sees as the circular reflection to be called?

Explanation: Ānanda, like a person in the world whose eyes have a cataract—a red film over the eyeball—who, after dark, sees under the lamplight, besides the lamp's light, an additional circular reflection with five overlapping colors. What is your view on this phenomenon? Is the circular light appearing from tonight's lamp—that round reflection—a form belonging to the lamp, or a form belonging to perception? Ānanda, if this circular reflection is a form belonging to the lamp, then why do people without eye disease not see it, while only those with eye disease can see it? If this circular reflection is a form belonging to perception, and perception has already become form, then what is that which the person with eye disease sees as the circular reflection to be called?

II. Original Text: Furthermore, Ānanda. If this circular reflection. Exists apart from the lamp. Then it should also appear when observing adjacent objects like screens, tents, tables, or mats. If it exists apart from perception. Then it should not be seen by the eye. Why then does the person with the film see the circular reflection with his eyes? Therefore, you should know. The form is indeed from the lamp. The disease of perception manifests as the reflection. Both the reflection and the perception are diseased. But the perception that perceives the disease is not diseased. One should never say. That it is the lamp or that it is perception. Nor that within this, it is neither lamp nor perception.

Explanation: Furthermore, Ānanda, if this circular reflection exists apart from the lamp, unrelated to the lamp, then it should also appear elsewhere, such as on screens, tents, tea tables, or dining tables. If it does not appear, it shows the circular reflection is related to the lamp; apart from the lamp, it does not exist. If it is said that the circular reflection can appear apart from the perceiving nature, then this circular reflection is not seen by the eye and is unrelated to the eye. Since it is unrelated to the eye, why does the person with eye disease see the circular reflection?

Therefore, you should know that the form is indeed manifested by the lamp's light; perceiving the disease of the eye is mistaken for the circular reflection. In this case, both the circular reflection and the eye's perception are diseased. However, the perceiving nature capable of reflecting the diseased state is not diseased. Therefore, one should not say: seeing the circular reflection belongs to the lamp or belongs to the perceiving nature, nor say within this that the circular reflection exists apart from the lamp or apart from the perceiving nature. Apart from the lamp, there is no perception; apart from perception, there is no lamp. Both the lamp and perception are the wondrous true mind, the true essence, the wondrous substance, the perfect bodhi.

Original Text: Like a second moon. It is not the substance nor a reflection. Why? The perception of the second moon. Is produced by squeezing (the eye). Those with wisdom. Should not say. That the source of this squeezing. Is form or non-form. Apart from perception or non-perception. It is the same here. Produced by the eye's film. Now, to name whom it belongs to? Is it the lamp or perception? How much less distinguish it as neither lamp nor perception.

Explanation: The perceived circular reflection is like a second moon; the second moon is neither the substance of the moon nor its reflection; apart from the substance, there is no second moon; the second moon represents the substance. Why is this said? Because the perception of a second moon arises from the false appearance produced by squeezing the eye. Those with wisdom should not say that the thing produced by squeezing has form or is formless, or that it can exist apart from seeing or not seeing. The circular reflection is the same; it is caused by diseased eyes, there is no real circular reflection. Now, wanting to distinguish whom the circular reflection belongs to—whether it belongs to the lamp or to perception—it is probably neither, much less distinguishing it as not belonging to the lamp and not belonging to perception.

III. Original Text: What is meant by collective delusory perception? Ānanda. This Jambudvīpa (Southern Continent). Excluding the great oceans. In the middle are flat lands. There are three thousand continents. The central great continent. Extending east and west. Has about two thousand three hundred large countries. The other small continents. Are in the various seas. Among them, some have. Two or three hundred countries. Or one or two. Up to thirty. Forty or fifty. Ānanda. If within this. There is a small continent. With only two countries. Only the people of one country. Experience a common evil condition. Then the sentient beings of that land on the small continent. Witness all kinds. Of inauspicious phenomena. Such as seeing two suns. Or seeing two moons. Among them even. Halos, eclipses, crescents. Comets, shooting stars. Rainbows with secondary bows. All kinds of evil signs. Only this country sees them. The sentient beings of that other country. Originally did not see them. Nor did they hear of them. Ānanda. I now for you. Use these two matters. To clarify by comparison and inference.

Explanation: What is collective delusory perception? Ānanda, this Jambudvīpa continent, excluding the great oceans, has flat lands in the middle. On the lands, there are three thousand continents. The central great continent extends broadly east and west; within the continent, there are about two thousand three hundred large countries. The other small continents are situated in various seas; among the small continents, some have two or three hundred countries, some have one or two countries, and some have thirty, forty, or fifty countries.

Ānanda, if among these continents, there is a small continent with only two countries, and only the people of one country experience a common evil condition (karmic affinity), then the sentient beings of that country on the small continent witness all kinds of inauspicious phenomena, such as seeing two suns, or seeing two moons, and within this country, eclipses, comets, and other various evil phenomena among the stars; only the people of this country can see them, while the sentient beings of the other country do not see them, nor do they hear of them. Ānanda, I now use this matter to explain to you what individual delusory perception and collective delusory perception are.

IV. Original Text: Like that sentient being. With individual delusory perception. Observes within the lamplight. The appearing circular reflection. Although it appears like a realm. Ultimately, for that perceiver. It is produced by the eye's film.

Explanation: Like that sentient being with individual delusory perception, who sees the circular reflection appearing within the lamplight; although the circular reflection appears within the lamplight as if it were a real realm, ultimately, for the person seeing the circular reflection, it is caused by his eye disease.

To observe means to see. People in the past used oil lamps for lighting at night; they placed an oil lamp on the table, and after lighting it, the lamp would emit light. But sentient beings with individual karma, besides seeing the light emitted by the lamp, also see an additional circular reflection within the lamplight. How does this circular reflection appear? This is individual delusory perception.

This sentient being has a karmic obstruction, an eye disease. Here in the Śūraṅgama Sūtra, this eye disease is called "眚" (shěng). What is meant by "眚"? It means a film growing over the eye; in modern terms, it might be called a cataract or similar; here it is a red film. Because there is a red film over the eye, when he sees the lamplight, within the lamplight, he additionally sees a circular reflection of five colors, different from the lamp's light, appearing as a cluster, called a circular reflection, distinct from the lamp's light. Because his eye has a film, when he sees the lamplight, he sees an additional cluster of color different from the lamp's light within the lamplight. He sees this circular reflection as if it were truly before his eyes. Why is it said to be "似" (seemingly)? "似" means it seems like there is a circular reflection, but in reality, it does not exist. People without eye disease do not see the circular reflection in the lamplight; only those with the red film over their eyes see this circular reflection. This circular reflection is the result of individual delusory perception.

How is this circular reflection formed? It is formed when the external lamplight passes through the eye faculty; the Tathāgatagarbha takes in the four great elements (earth, water, fire, wind) particles and transmits them through the eye faculty to the superior faculty (胜义根, indriya) in the back of the brain, forming the internal manifestation of the lamplight. For a person with diseased eyes, there is a red film over the eye faculty; when the four elements particles pass through the red film, they encounter obstruction. After being obstructed, the transmitted four elements particles change; after changing, when they are transmitted to the superior faculty of the eye in the back of the brain, the internal manifestation formed by the four elements particles becomes distorted, different from the external manifestation of the lamplight, manifesting as a distorted internal manifestation. The person with eye disease then sees an additional circle of round light, which is the part of the four elements particles that did not pass through the red film. From this example, we understand that the realm of the six dusts each sentient being contacts is their own internal manifestation, not the shared external manifestation of sentient beings.

This internal manifestation not only contains the color and brightness of the external lamplight but also an additional circular reflection, formed by the altered four elements particles transmitted through the red film. This circular reflection is caused by the red film. Because the four elements particles changed, an additional circular reflection appears; this circular reflection is the individual karma. After the circular reflection appears, the person with individual karmic eye disease sees it and it is called delusory perception, not true perception. After seeing the circular reflection, he feels it is very real, confronting his eye faculty as if it were right before him, but in reality, it does not exist.

A person with a red film over his eyes, besides seeing the lamplight, additionally sees a five-colored circular reflection within the lamplight—this is the additional circular reflection he sees. A person without the eye disease sees the lamplight purely as lamplight, without additionally seeing a so-called circle of round reflection. What does this illustrate? It illustrates that the realm each sentient being perceives is actually their own internal manifestation. Each person, due to their different karmic obstructions, perceives different internal manifestations. When the eye has a red film, the Tathāgatagarbha, through the eye faculty, takes in the external manifestation of the lamplight; after taking it in, the image becomes distorted, manifesting an additional circular reflection. The perceptions of the other faculties are also like this; due to different karmic obstructions, what is perceived differs; all are delusory perceptions, not true perception.

The circular reflection arises because a person with individual karma has diseased eyes; only he can see the additional circle of round reflection, while others without this eye disease do not see it; the forms they perceive are normal, without hallucinations or illusions. Similarly, a person with mental illness will delusorily perceive mountains, rivers, the great earth, the five aggregates, and the world of vessels; a person without mental illness will perceive the wondrous function of his own and others' true suchness Buddha-nature.

Original Text: The film is the fatigue of perception. Not produced by form. However, that which perceives the film. Ultimately has no fault of perception.

Explanation: His film disease is the fatigue disease that appears after the perceiving nature becomes fatigued; it is not an eye disease caused by form. However, the perceiving nature that perceives the film disease has no fault of perception.

The character "眚" (shěng) means having a red film over the eye; the character "劳" (láo) means dust and toil, fatigue, a kind of disease or defilement. Sentient beings, because of faults in their knowing and perceiving since beginningless time, have the disease of perception; this is called "眚" (shěng). Because there is the disease of perception, there is delusory perception; they will perceive non-existent things like the circular reflection, mountains, rivers, the great earth, the universe, the world of vessels, etc. Sentient beings, after delusorily perceiving these dharmas, regard them as real, then grasp and cling to them without letting go, ceaselessly seizing and grasping, creating karma without end.

Sentient beings, because of the disease of perception, have obstruction in their mind's eye seeing dharmas; consequently, they only recognize false dharmas like the circular reflection and do not perceive the true suchness Buddha-nature like the lamplight. This is due to the beginningless disease of perception; it is not caused by external form or external dharmas; the true suchness has no fault, the perceiving nature has no fault. It is like a person with eye film disease whose vision is obstructed, causing an illusion when seeing forms. The perceived non-existent circular reflection is not caused by the lamp; it is caused by his eye disease, which makes him additionally see a circle of round reflection.

The Buddha says sentient beings seeing the circular reflection is called individual delusory perception. A person with a red film over his eyes perceives everything as caused by his eye disease. Then, do the perceptions of people without eye disease also have faults? The Buddha then proceeds to explain further, expanding this example to illustrate that all sentient beings are actually like this patient with eye disease; all sentient beings have mental illness.

Why is the perceiving nature that perceives the film without fault? Because this perceiving nature merely perceives purely; it does not care whether the realm is good or bad, virtuous or evil, right or wrong, beautiful or ugly; it does not discriminate; it only presents the realm as it is, without knowing what the realm is; therefore, no matter what realm appears, it is without fault.

Original Text: By analogy, you today. With eyes observe and perceive. Mountains, rivers, lands. And all sentient beings. All are produced by. Beginningless disease of perception. The perception and the perceived conditions. Seemingly manifest as present realms.

Explanation: This analogy compares to what is now perceived with the eyes—mountains, rivers, lands, and sentient beings—all are produced by the beginningless disease of perception. The perceiving nature capable of seeing forms and the conditions required for perception, such as mountains, rivers, lands, sentient beings, etc., seemingly manifest as real realms before one's own mind.

Why can all sentient beings see mountains, rivers, lands, and sentient beings? Sentient beings, since beginningless time, due to inverted views, perceive everything as delusory perception; everything they see is a false appearance; they do not perceive the true reality, taking the unreal dharmas as real dharmas; thus, they can see mountains, rivers, lands, and all sentient beings, and have the suffering of birth, death, and rebirth, just like the person with eye film disease seeing the five-colored circular reflection under the lamplight. If sentient beings eliminate their ignorance disease, without inverted knowing and perceiving, then what they perceive should all be their own Buddha-nature, all the wondrous true substance; they would not delusorily perceive the false realms of the six dusts, mountains, rivers, great earth, and sentient beings, etc., and take them as real. Just like a person without eye film disease seeing only the lamplight under the lamp, without a circular reflection.

The Buddha uses the circular reflection seen by sentient beings with eye disease as a metaphor to illustrate that all sentient beings, because they have mental ignorance disease, cannot perceive their own true suchness Buddha-nature. In truth, sentient beings do not perceive the true suchness Buddha-nature; they only perceive the false appearances of the six dusts, including mountains, rivers, great earth, the universe, the world of vessels, and all sentient beings. Mountains, rivers, great earth, the universe, the world of vessels, and sentient beings are like that circular reflection. The Buddha uses this individual delusory perception of seeing the lamp reflection to metaphorize that sentient beings with mental ignorance disease perceive mountains and rivers as also individual delusory perception, distinct from the true suchness Buddha-nature perceived by Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.

The Buddha uses the person with eye film seeing the circular reflection to analogize the mountains and rivers seen by sentient beings, all produced by beginningless disease of perception. Sentient beings, because they have mental ignorance disease, their knowing and perceiving are inverted; this is beginningless ignorance. Sentient beings, because of beginningless ignorance and beginningless disease of perception, perceive everything as delusory perception; whether perceiving mountains, rivers, lands, the universe, the world of vessels, or all sentient beings, it is delusory perception; even perceiving the Buddhas of the ten directions is delusory perception.

V. Original Text: Fundamentally, my enlightened clarity. The perceived conditions are diseased. To perceive enlightenment is itself disease. The originally enlightened bright mind.

Explanation: The fundamental, originally enlightened bright substance of my self is pure and clear, but the dharmas perceived by the originally enlightened perceiving nature, such as mountains, rivers, great earth, etc., are diseased, produced by the disease and faults of perception. To perceive enlightenment of the originally enlightened perceiving nature is also disease; the original enlightenment is still present, the perceiving nature is always there; if there were no ignorance, why this additional act of perception? The original enlightenment is originally the perfect wondrous bright true mind; why use it to perceive anything further?

"元" (yuán) means fundamental, primordial, existing since beginningless time, not born later; this refers to the original enlightenment. "元我觉明" (yuán wǒ jué míng) means I fundamentally have a very clear enlightened nature; this enlightened nature is bright, capable of clearly knowing all dharmas and perceiving all dharmas. But the false dharmas perceived by the perceiving nature have the disease of "眚," the faults of birth and death. Because the operation and manifestation of the perceiving nature depend on the six sense faculties, six dusts, six consciousnesses, and the world of vessels of the five aggregates; without the conditions of the six sense faculties, six dusts, six consciousnesses, the perceiving nature has nothing to perceive.

Original Text: The enlightenment of conditions is not diseased. The enlightenment and the perceived disease. Enlightenment is not within disease. This is truly seeing the seeing. How can it still be called. Perception, hearing, knowing, seeing?

Explanation: The fundamental wondrous true mind capable of enlightening the conditions of all dharmas has no disease, while the enlightening and the perceived are within the disease; the original enlightenment is not within the disease. Only with such superior understanding can one truly perceive the perceiving nature of the original enlightenment; how can the perceiving nature of the original enlightenment still be called the perceiving, hearing, knowing, and seeing nature of the seventh consciousness?

All perception is the wondrous true suchness nature of the original enlightenment, the one true Dharma realm, the wondrous bright true substance. The original true enlightenment has no ignorance, no disease obstructions; it is not within the disease of sentient beings, nor is it the result of sentient beings' disease; it is the originally endowed perfect clear enlightened nature of sentient beings. If we perceive our own original true enlightenment, which is not within the disease, this perception is called true perception; upon all false dharmas, one should perceive the non-delusory original enlightenment Buddha-nature, perceive the wondrous true suchness nature of all dharmas; this is perception without the disease of "眚," it is clear perception and true perception. Delusory perception can only perceive mountains, rivers, great earth, world lands, and sentient beings; true perception perceives our original enlightened nature. If sentient beings give rise to true perception, perceiving the true suchness Buddha-nature upon all dharmas, then they know all dharmas are the wondrous function of the true suchness Buddha-nature; all perception, the perception of the Tathāgatagarbha, then has no delusory perception of the disease of "眚," and it is no longer called the perceiving, hearing, knowing, and seeing of the seventh consciousness.

Original Text: Therefore, you now. Perceiving me and yourselves. And all the world. The ten kinds of sentient beings. All are precisely perceiving disease.

Explanation: Therefore, it is said that now all of you can perceive me (referring to the Buddha himself) and yourselves, and can also perceive the ten kinds of sentient beings in the world; these perceptions are all precisely perceiving disease; they are all the result of the disease of perception.

Because sentient beings have mental ignorance, all perceptions are precisely perceiving disease; what is perceived has faults. With the disease of perception, one perceives all false appearances of the world; all perceived appearances are false; sentient beings' perceptions are all delusory perceptions. Even perceiving the Buddha is delusory perception, because the Buddha's five-aggregate body also belongs to one of the appearances within the realm of the six dusts; thus, when seeing the Buddha, perceiving the Buddha's five-aggregate form is also delusory perception. When not perceiving delusorily, one perceives one's own Buddha-nature, not merely seeing the Buddha's five-aggregate body.

Original Text: Those not perceiving disease. They perceive the true essence. The nature that is not diseased. Therefore, it is not called perception.

Explanation: People without the disease of perception, they constantly perceive that true essence, the wondrous bright nature; the fundamental wondrous bright nature of perception has no disease; therefore, it cannot be said to have perception similar to that of the seventh consciousness.

That true essence is the perceiving nature of the original enlightenment; the perceiving nature inherently has no dust, toil, faults, no disease of "眚," no ignorance; thus, the perceiving nature is originally bright, without delusory perception; it does not discriminate specific realms of the six dusts like the seventh consciousness; it only equally illuminates all dharmas without making specific discriminations on dust realms; it is utterly different from the discriminated dharmas appearances of the seventh consciousness; therefore, it is not said to have perception of the six dusts.

VI. Individual Delusory Perception and Collective Delusory Perception

What is delusory perception? Delusory perception means untrue perception, false perception, inverted perception; the perceived dharmas are similarly unreal, false, illusorily manifested by the Tathāgatagarbha; the perception is also perceived by our delusory mind; the perceiver is the seventh consciousness mind; the perceived is the realm of the six dusts; in short, both perceiver and perceived are false. The seventh consciousness mind and the realm of the six dusts are all produced by the Tathāgatagarbha; they are not true dharmas; even karmic seeds are false because they can be destroyed, can change, have birth and death, and are not eternally existent.

Individual karma is karma distinct from other sentient beings. From the smallest individual karma, it is the good and evil karma individually experienced by a single sentient being, called individual karma; expanding a bit, two or three people, or a region, a certain village, a certain settlement, a certain province, or a certain country, experiencing unique good and evil karma—this is also called individual karma. Individual delusory perception is the perception experienced by an individual sentient being or a group of sentient beings with unique karma, not shared with other sentient beings, called individual karma; when individual karma manifests, sentient beings experience it, called delusory perception.

Collective delusory perception refers to the shared karma of sentient beings with specifically identical karmic force; it is the delusory perception collectively experienced by these sentient beings. "同" (tóng) means common; the shared karma of a group of sentient beings is called "同分" (tóng fēn), collective karma. Delusory perception is the delusory mind of sentient beings perceiving these illusory karmic appearances; it is erroneous, inverted perception.

Collective karma refers to the shared karma of many sentient beings, such as the collective karma of all sentient beings in the entire Sahā world, or the collective karma of all sentient beings in the entire Jambudvīpa continent of the Sahā world, or the karma of all sentient beings in our entire country within Jambudvīpa, or the shared karma of all sentient beings in a certain province within China; this is called "同分" (tóng fēn). "同" means common; what is commonly seen by sentient beings with collective karma, the good and evil karma commonly experienced, is called collective delusory perception; of course, what is perceived is also erroneous, inverted perception.

Individual and collective karma are relative, not absolute; it depends on which group of sentient beings it is relative to. For example, the karma of our entire country in Jambudvīpa can be called collective karma or individual karma. If called collective karma, it is the karma shared by all sentient beings within the entire Chinese region; if called individual karma, it is because this karma is not shared with sentient beings of the entire Earth or other parts of Jambudvīpa; this is also called individual karma. Only the karma of individual sentient beings, the karma of one sentient being, is completely individual karma, not called collective karma. The karma of two people, relative to those two, is shared karma, collective karma; relative to other sentient beings, it is also called individual karma. Whether collective or individual karma, all are the result of delusory perception.

All dharmas apart from the Tathāgatagarbha are false; therefore, the Buddha says it is called delusory perception. Whether individual delusory perception or collective delusory perception, all are delusory perception; what we perceive are all false appearances within the superior faculty in the brain. For example, suppose an earthquake or fire occurs in a certain town; this is individual karma but also collective karma. Whether individual or collective karma, the external manifestation exists. The external fire ignites; the external ground shakes and cracks; the earthquake and fire are phenomena of sentient beings' external environment, i.e., the external body. But what the six consciousnesses of sentient beings perceive are the internal realms and internal bodies dependent on the external. Sentient beings feeling the earthquake, seeing the fire, even being affected by it—all that they can perceive are internal manifestations, manifested based on the external manifestation. The external manifestation, internal manifestation, collective karma, individual karma—all are within the Tathāgatagarbha; all are illusorily manifested by the Tathāgatagarbha.

Another example: an airplane crash. For the several hundred people on the plane, the plane crash belongs to the collective karma of these several hundred people; but these several hundred people, relative to billions in other regions, tens of billions, trillions, or immeasurable sentient beings, belong to individual karma. Whether collective or individual karma, the plane crash event has an external manifestation and an internal manifestation, but what sentient beings perceive is the internal manifestation; the true external manifestation, the essential realm, can only be contacted by the Tathāgatagarbha; the six consciousnesses cannot contact it. The external manifestation of the plane is shattered; what they see as the shattered plane is the internal manifestation; they do not know the state of the external manifestation, which is almost the same as the internal manifestation. This is the relationship between collective karma, individual karma, and external and internal manifestations.