Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Vol. 10: Exposition of the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination (Part 1)

Original text: What is desire realm craving (kāma-taṇhā)? It refers to the affection arising from all formations (saṅkhāra) of the desire realm as condition. It is the tainted craving, pursuit, thoughts, and wishes within the desire realm. From this craving and affection, the painful results of the desire realm can arise. What is form realm craving (rūpa-taṇhā)? It refers to the affection arising from all formations of the form realm as condition. It is the tainted craving and wishes within the form realm. From this tainted craving, the painful results of the form realm can arise. What is formless realm craving (arūpa-taṇhā)? It refers to the affection arising from all formations of the formless realm as condition. It is the tainted craving and wishes within the formless realm. From this, the painful results of the formless realm can arise.

Explanation: What is desire realm craving? Desire realm craving is the affection and delight born from all the formations (rūpa, vedanā, saññā, saṅkhāra, viññāṇa) of the desire realm as condition. It is the tainted craving, pursuit, thoughts, and wishes practiced within the desire realm. From these cravings and affections, the painful karmic results of the desire realm can be born. What is form realm craving? Form realm craving is the affection born from all the formations (rūpa, vedanā, saññā, saṅkhāra, viññāṇa) of the form realm as condition. It is the tainted craving and wishes practiced within the form realm. From this tainted craving, the painful results of the form realm can be born. What is formless realm craving? Formless realm craving is the affection born from all the formations (vedanā, saññā, saṅkhāra, viññāṇa) of the formless realm as condition. It is the tainted craving and wishes practiced within the formless realm. From this, the painful results of the formless realm can be born.

The formations of the desire realm include all life activities within the desire realm, all fabrications of the five aggregates (pañcakkhandhā), the contact arising from the coming together of the three (sense base, object, and consciousness) and the resultant feeling (vedanā), perception (saññā), and volition (cetanā); the greed (lobha), hatred (dosa), delusion (moha), conceit (māna), doubt (vicikicchā), and wrong views (diṭṭhi) arising when the six consciousnesses perceive all dharmas, and other tainted mental formations. "Tainted" (saṅkiliṭṭha) refers to the mind being impure, unquiet, unrelinquishing, seeking, possessing self (atta) and what belongs to self (attanīya), and so forth. Because sentient beings' minds constantly dwell in the pit of defilement, and the defilement is so severe and habitual, it is very difficult for them to introspect upon the defilement within their own minds. They also do not know the boundary and standard between defilement and purity, considering all their mental formations to be normal, natural, and inherently so. Therefore, it is difficult for sentient beings to embark on the correct path of practice. The path of cultivation and realization is indeed long and arduous. To achieve a complete transformation and attain the fruit of stream-entry (sotāpatti) or the stage approaching stream-entry (sotāpattiphalasacchikiriyāpariyāya) is not an easy matter.

The form realm and formless realm possess the four dhyānas (jhāna) and eight concentrations (samāpatti). Why do craving and taint, tainted actions, still exist there? Stream-enterers (sotāpanna) and once-returners (sakadāgāmin) do not possess the four dhyānas and eight concentrations. Those who possess the four dhyānas and eight concentrations are non-returners (anāgāmin) and arahants (arahat). However, the four dhyānas and eight concentrations of ordinary beings (puthujjana) can only suppress and subdue defilements (kilesa), not eradicate them. They have not eradicated the view of self (sakkāyadiṭṭhi). Due to ignorance (avijjā) and the view of self, they have various unwise considerations (ayoniso manasikāra) and tainted cravings. For example, taking the material body as self, craving for it never to perish; taking feeling as self, greedily seeking the pleasure of concentration; taking consciousness as self, abiding in the state of the perception aggregate (saññākkhandha), and so on. The formations of the form realm include feeling born from eye-contact, feeling born from ear-contact, feeling born from body-contact, feeling born from mind-contact, after which form-realm craving arises, leading to tainted craving. The formations of the formless realm consist only of feeling born from mind-contact, and craving arises from attachment to the state of concentration, leading to tainted craving.

Similarly, the devas (gods) of the form realm and formless realm possess tainted craving and engage in tainted actions. Except for the non-returners (anāgāmin) and arahants (arahat), the rest of the devas have varying degrees of defilement. Stream-enterers (sotāpanna) and once-returners (sakadāgāmin) do not possess the first dhyāna. If they die, they can only be reborn in the desire realm heavens, not in the form or formless realm heavens. Non-returners possess the first dhyāna or higher. After death, they will be reborn in the five Pure Abodes (Suddhāvāsa). Some may attain the fruit of arahantship (arahatta) in the intermediate state (antara-bhava) and enter parinibbāna without residue (sa-upādisesa-nibbāna). Arahants who do not turn towards the Mahayana enter parinibbāna without residue directly.

Therefore, the devas of the form realm and formless realm are almost all ordinary beings possessing the four dhyānas and eight concentrations. Ordinary beings have not eradicated the view of self and thus have not eradicated defilements. Relying on concentration, they can only subdue the coarser defilements of greed, hatred, and delusion. Because ordinary devas have not eradicated the view of self, they grasp at one, several, or all phenomena among the five aggregates and eighteen elements as self. They almost always have tainted mental actions and inclinations, almost always possessing tainted cravings and wishes. For example, craving for immortality, craving for eternal life, craving for the bliss of concentration and the merits of concentration – these cravings are desires and defilements, constituting kamma leading to birth and death, capable of bringing forth the suffering of birth and death, not escaping saṃsāra. What suffering exists in the form and formless realms? Birth, decay, change, and death are suffering. Knowing that death leads to further rebirth is suffering. Knowing that after death one may take rebirth in the three lower realms to receive karmic retribution is suffering. The impermanence of life is suffering. The inability of the body to be immortal is suffering.

Dedication Verse: We dedicate all the merits from Dharma propagation and group practice on our online platform to all beings throughout the Dharma realm, and to the people of the world. We pray for world peace, the cessation of wars; the absence of conflict, the eternal end of weapons; the complete subsiding of all disasters! We pray for the unity, mutual assistance, and kindness among the peoples of all nations; for favorable weather and national prosperity with people at peace! May all beings deeply believe in cause and effect, be compassionate and refrain from killing; widely cultivate good affinities and wholesome kamma; believe in the Buddha, learn the Buddha's teachings, and increase their wholesome roots; understand suffering, abandon its origin, aspire for cessation, and cultivate the path; close the door to the evil destinies and open the path to Nibbāna! May Buddhism flourish forever, may the true Dharma abide eternally; transforming the burning house of the three realms into the lotus land of Ultimate Bliss!