Selected Lectures on the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra

Volume One: The Corresponding Ground of the Five Sense-Consciousness Bodies

Original Text: What is the corresponding ground of the five sense-consciousness bodies? It refers to the self-nature of the five sense-consciousness bodies, that upon which they depend, that which they perceive, their accompanying factors, and their functions. What are the five sense-consciousness bodies? They are the eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, and body-consciousness.

Explanation: What is the ground corresponding to the five sense-consciousness bodies? It encompasses five aspects: the self-nature of the five sense-consciousness bodies; what the five consciousnesses depend upon; what the five consciousnesses perceive; the accompanying factors of the five consciousnesses; and the functions of the five consciousnesses. The five consciousnesses refer to eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, and body-consciousness. The ground corresponding to the five consciousnesses is the Desire Realm. The "ground" refers to the nine grounds within the Three Realms. The Three Realms are the Desire Realm, the Form Realm, and the Formless Realm. The nine grounds are: the Desire Realm as the first ground; the First Dhyāna Heaven of the Form Realm as the second ground; the Second Dhyāna Heaven as the third ground; the Third Dhyāna Heaven as the fourth ground; the Fourth Dhyāna Heaven as the fifth ground; plus the four grounds of the Four Formless Heavens in the Formless Realm, making nine grounds in total.

What, then, is the ground corresponding to the five sense-consciousness bodies? It refers to the Desire Realm. Only sentient beings in the Desire Realm possess all five consciousnesses: eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body. Heavenly beings in the First Dhyāna Heaven of the Form Realm lack nose-consciousness and tongue-consciousness; they only have eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, body-consciousness, plus mind-consciousness, the seventh consciousness, and the eighth consciousness. Heavenly beings in the Second Dhyāna Heaven and above also lack nose-consciousness and tongue-consciousness. Therefore, the ground corresponding to the five sense-consciousness bodies is the Desire Realm; it does not include the Form Realm or the Formless Realm.

The connotation of the ground corresponding to the five sense-consciousness bodies includes these five aspects: the self-nature of the five sense-consciousness bodies; what the five sense-consciousness bodies depend upon; what the five sense-consciousness bodies perceive; the accompanying factors of the five sense-consciousness bodies; and the functions of the five sense-consciousness bodies. The self-nature of the five sense-consciousness bodies refers to what their intrinsic nature is, what functions they can perform, what their capabilities are. The self-nature of the five sense-consciousness bodies is the nature of discernment; they have the functional capacity to discriminate, which is called the self-nature of the five consciousnesses. What the five sense-consciousness bodies depend upon refers to the dharmas upon which the five consciousnesses rely in order to arise. The five consciousnesses depend upon the five sense faculties, specifically the refined-material faculties (the subtle faculties), for them to arise. What the five sense-consciousness bodies perceive refers to what dharmas the five consciousnesses grasp or perceive. The five consciousnesses perceive the five sense objects (form, sound, etc.), specifically the internal sense objects.

The accompanying factors of the five consciousnesses refer to the dharmas that assist the operation of the five consciousnesses, helping them to function and manifest, aiding them in performing the function of discernment and discrimination. These are called accompanying factors. The accompanying factors of the five consciousnesses are the mental factors associated with them: attention (manaskāra), contact (sparśa), feeling (vedanā), perception (saṃjñā), and volition (cetanā). The functions of the five consciousnesses refer to what they can do, what functions they perform. The function of the five consciousnesses is the nature of discernment and discrimination; they can discern the five sense objects. The above five aspects are collectively called the corresponding ground of the five sense-consciousness bodies, which is the Desire Realm, because only within the Desire Realm are the five sense objects fully present. What are the five sense-consciousness bodies? They are the eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, and body-consciousness. These five sense-consciousness bodies correspond to the Desire Realm.

Original Text: What is the self-nature of eye-consciousness? It is the discernment of form relying on the eye. That upon which it depends: the co-existent support is the eye; the immediately preceding condition is mind; the seed support is precisely all these seeds, the appropriated support, comprised of the ripening, the ālaya-vijñāna.

Explanation: Specifically discussing eye-consciousness, the self-nature of eye-consciousness is to discern form objects relying on the eye faculty. What eye-consciousness depends upon is the eye faculty. For eye-consciousness to arise, the eye faculty must first exist. This faculty refers to the refined-material faculty (subtle faculty), which is the subtle faculty located in the occipital lobe. The ālaya-vijñāna projects an image of the form object onto this subtle faculty, called the internal form object. When the subtle faculty contacts this internal form object, eye-consciousness can be produced by the ālaya-vijñāna. Therefore, the subtle faculty of the eye is the co-existent support (sahabhū-hetu) for eye-consciousness. The immediately preceding condition (samanantara-pratyaya) for eye-consciousness refers to the seed of eye-consciousness itself.

What is the immediately preceding condition? "Immediately preceding" (samanantara) means seeds of the same kind, not seeds of a different kind. "Uninterrupted" (anantara) means operating without interruption or interval. "Condition" (pratyaya) means reliance or dependence. Seeds of the same kind rely and depend upon each other equally and without interruption for their operation. The operation of eye-consciousness is formed by the momentary arising and ceasing of countless eye-consciousness seeds. That is, the first consciousness seed arises and ceases instantaneously in the place where it arose. Then, the second eye-consciousness seed arises in the same location and ceases instantaneously there. The third seed arises in the same location and ceases in the same place. In this way, countless eye-consciousness seeds arise and cease momentarily in the same place, forming eye-consciousness, which then has the capacity for discrimination.

The preceding eye-consciousness seed opens the way for the subsequent seed to arise in that location. Thus, the preceding eye-consciousness seed acts as the opening guide (niryāṇa) for the subsequent eye-consciousness seed, also called the immediately preceding condition. All eye-consciousness seeds are called opening guides or immediately preceding conditions, except for the very last seed. The first eye-consciousness that arises cannot discern form objects. When the second seed arises, it discerns a little bit. When the third seed arises, it definitively discerns, and at that point, form is known.

The seed support (bīja-pratyaya) for eye-consciousness refers to what dharma the seeds of eye-consciousness depend upon to arise, what dharma can produce the seeds, and where the seeds come from. What are seeds? Seeds are the most fundamental components that produce material and mental dharmas. Eye-consciousness has its own seeds, ear-consciousness has its own seeds, nose-consciousness has its own seeds; each consciousness has its own intrinsic seeds. Therefore, eye-consciousness must have eye-consciousness seeds for it to be produced.

All the seeds required for eye-consciousness come from the ālaya-vijñāna, also called the ripening consciousness (vipāka-vijñāna). The ālaya-vijñāna contains consciousness seeds, one of the seven great types of seeds. When these are projected out, they form the seven consciousnesses, enabling sentient beings to have the function of discernment. The self-nature of eye-consciousness relies on seeds for eye-consciousness to arise. Seeds generate eye-consciousness and enable it to function. There must be a basis upon which this depends: the appropriated support for all the seeds of eye-consciousness, which is the ālaya-vijñāna, the ripening consciousness. Seeds must rely on the unborn and unceasing ālaya-vijñāna to exist, be projected, and function, thereby forming the self of eye-consciousness. That is to say, the ālaya-vijñāna and the ripening consciousness are the support for the seeds of eye-consciousness.

The name "ālaya-vijñāna" is used prior to the Eighth Bodhisattva Ground (Aṣṭamabhūmi). It contains the afflictions (kleśa) of greed, hatred, and delusion of the seven consciousnesses, or the habitual tendencies of these afflictions. Before the Eighth Ground, it is called ālaya-vijñāna. After the Eighth Ground, it is called the ripening consciousness (vipāka-vijñāna). The ripening consciousness also contains eye-consciousness seeds and can produce eye-consciousness. Bodhisattvas from the Eighth Ground up to Buddhahood possess eye-consciousness seeds and can produce eye-consciousness, performing the function of seeing form. At the Buddha Ground, it is no longer called ripening consciousness but the immaculate consciousness (amala-vijñāna).

The ripening consciousness contains seeds of varied birth and death; birth and death are not yet exhausted. The meaning of "ripening" (vipāka) is that the karmas we create now exist as karmic seeds within the ripening consciousness. When the conditions mature in the future, the results are experienced. The time of experiencing the result is at another time, called "different time" (vipāka-kāla), meaning it will be experienced in the future, either in later life or in the next life, when the karmic conditions mature and the fruition can manifest. Or, it can be experienced in a different place (vipāka-deśa): we create karma in the Sahā world or in the human realm, and in the next life, we experience the bad result in hell or the good result in the heavenly realm. Or, it can be experienced in the same type of body, only the location changes. Experiencing in a different kind (vipāka-jāti) means the type of body that creates the karma and experiences the result changes; it is not the same kind of sentient body. The mind that contains karmic seeds ripening at different times, in different places, and for different kinds is called the ripening consciousness.

Original Text: Thus, briefly stated, there are two kinds of supports: material and non-material. The eye is material; the others are non-material. The eye refers to the refined-material faculty, composed of the four great elements, which is the support for eye-consciousness, invisible but obstructive.

Explanation: The objects upon which eye-consciousness depends to arise are one material and one non-material. The material object is the eye faculty. The eye faculty refers to the subtle faculty of the eye, not the gross physical eye (organ), though it also cannot function without the gross physical eye. If the gross physical eye is intact but the subtle faculty is damaged, eye-consciousness cannot arise. For eye-consciousness to arise, there must be an intact subtle faculty.

This is because eye-consciousness arises at the subtle faculty located in the occipital lobe. When the subtle faculty is intact, the ālaya-vijñāna can apprehend the external form object and transform it into an internal form object at that location. When the internal form object contacts the subtle faculty of the eye, the ālaya-vijñāna produces eye-consciousness. The subtle faculty at the location where the ālaya-vijñāna produces eye-consciousness is also composed of the four great elements (mahābhūta): earth, water, fire, and wind. The occipital region belongs to material form, and material form is composed of the seeds of the four great elements. This subtle faculty is the refined-material faculty, a pure material form. It is invisible (anidarśana) and obstructive (sapratigha). "Invisible" means it cannot be seen by the physical eye because it is inside the occipital lobe. A doctor might see it through surgery, or someone with psychic powers might see it, but ordinary eyes cannot see it. "Obstructive" means it corresponds to form objects.

Original Text: Mind refers to the immediately past consciousness preceding eye-consciousness without interval. The all-seed consciousness refers to the ripening consciousness containing all seeds, produced from beginningless time due to the cause of delighting in and clinging to conceptual proliferation as the basis for perfuming.

Explanation: The non-material objects upon which eye-consciousness depends are the immediately preceding condition—its own seeds—and the seed support—the ālaya-vijñāna ripening consciousness. The immediately preceding condition means that one eye-consciousness seed after another continuously arises and ceases, operating equally and without interval. The subsequent seed relies on the preceding seed to open the way for its position, forming a flow of eye-consciousness seeds that produce the discriminative function of eye-consciousness. The all-seed support refers to eye-consciousness relying on the ālaya-vijñāna ripening consciousness to project its eye-consciousness seeds. The ālaya-vijñāna, which contains all seeds, has, since beginningless time, stored the karmic seeds of the seven consciousnesses due to their delighting in and clinging to the conceptual proliferation (prapañca) of the five aggregates and the three realms, mistaking the false for the real, thereby creating karmic actions.

Based on this cause, the ālaya-vijñāna stores the karmic seeds of the seven consciousnesses, becoming perfumed, turning into the ālaya-vijñāna containing the seeds of birth and death, becoming the ripening consciousness capable of producing the karmic results for sentient beings. "The produced all-seed ripening consciousness" refers to the eighth consciousness, the ālaya-vijñāna. Because sentient beings delight in conceptual proliferation, take the false dharmas as real, play within the three realms, and have engaged in conceptual proliferation since beginningless time—taking the five aggregates as real dharmas, the world as real—they create bodily, verbal, and mental karma. The karmic seeds are stored in the eighth consciousness. Based on this conceptual proliferation as the cause, the ālaya-vijñāna containing the seeds of birth and death is formed. This ālaya-vijñāna is the non-material object upon which eye-consciousness depends.

Original Text: That which it perceives is form, which is visible and obstructive. This is also of many kinds, briefly stated as three: apparent form (varṇa), shape/form (saṃsthāna), and indicative form (vijñapti). Apparent form refers to blue, yellow, red, white; light, shadow, brightness, darkness; cloud, smoke, dust, mist; and the apparent form of space. Shape/form refers to long, short, square, round; coarse, fine; straight, crooked; high, low; color. Indicative form refers to taking, discarding, bending, stretching; walking, standing, sitting, lying down; and such forms.

Explanation: What eye-consciousness perceives is form; it perceives form objects, corresponding to the internal form object, contacting the internal form object. This form object is visible and obstructive; it corresponds to eye-consciousness, which can see it and discriminate it. Form is broadly categorized into three types (actually four; here it is briefly explained as three): apparent form (varṇa), shape/form (saṃsthāna), and indicative form (vijñapti). There is also another type called non-indicative form (avijñapti), not mentioned here. What is apparent form? "Apparent" means it can be displayed, can be seen, including the colors blue, yellow, red, white; light, shadow, brightness, darkness—all belong to apparent form. Cloud, smoke, dust, mist also belong to form objects, corresponding to eye-consciousness.

The apparent form of space (ākāśa-eka-varṇa) is voidness, emptiness. Because space is the "form at the boundary of form," this "boundary form" also corresponds to eye-consciousness and is an object discerned by eye-consciousness. Voidness is not truly existent, but eye-consciousness can perceive that there is nothing, it is empty. Eye-consciousness can discriminate whether there is a form object opposite it or not. Where there is an object is form; where there is no object is emptiness. Therefore, eye-consciousness can discriminate emptiness, and this emptiness is a kind of apparent form. Apparent form includes blue, yellow, red, white; light, shadow, brightness, darkness; cloud, smoke, dust, mist; and emptiness, etc.

Shape/form (saṃsthāna) refers to the shape, which includes size, length, shortness, squareness, roundness, coarseness, fineness, highness, lowness, straightness and crookedness—these form dharmas. For example: the appearance of a pot of flowers and the form of its branches; the height, build, and various postures of the human body; the length, shortness, squareness, roundness of objects, etc. These shape/forms are not what eye-consciousness alone can discriminate. Eye-consciousness can only discern the direct perceptual object (pratyakṣa-viṣaya). Shape/form requires analysis, comparison, and thought to be judged. There is no absolute tall or short, fat or thin, long or short; it is a conclusion reached through comparison.

For instance, a pencil is short compared to a wooden stick but long compared to a matchstick. Without comparison, one cannot define whether the pencil is long or short. The mental faculty capable of performing this comparative thinking is the nature of the mind-consciousness; it is the mind-consciousness that performs discrimination, inference, and judgment. Therefore, it is the mind-consciousness that discerns shape/form. Shape/form is a form included in the mental sphere (dharmāyatana), manifested upon the internal form object which is a "correspondence-object" (sāropama-viṣaya, lit. "object possessing semblance"). It depends on the "correspondence-object" and belongs to mental objects (dharmas). Therefore, it is an object discerned by the mind-consciousness.

Indicative form (vijñapti) is an aggregated form appearance. Due to the continuous arising and ceasing of form appearances, a false appearance of continuity is formed. The previous form appearance arises and ceases, and the next form appearance arises immediately afterward at a slightly different location and then ceases. Countless arising and ceasing form appearances continuously aggregate, forming the movement and activity of the form body. Superficially, it appears real and continuous, but in reality, it is discontinuous and false. Due to the transformation of conditions of form appearances, all form appearances do not arise in the same location but arise in different, connected locations, forming the continuous change of form appearances. Sentient beings perceive this and think the form body is moving and active, but it is not.

These form appearances continuously arise, cease, and transform. Sometimes the transformation is uninterrupted; sometimes it is interrupted, with pauses in between. The distance of this transformation varies, so the scope of the form body's activity can be large or small. Or, these form appearances may continuously arise, cease, and transform in the same location, such as sentient beings sitting, lying down, standing, sleeping, and facial expressions like anger, joy, shame, embarrassment, etc. It also includes various activities of transformation and movement of inanimate objects in their original location, such as the flickering of light, the shining of sunlight, the growth of plants, etc.

In short, indicative form refers to the various actions of the physical body of sentient beings, such as taking or discarding, bending or stretching, walking or standing, sitting or lying down. Taking up or discarding certain items is called "taking and discarding." Bending the waist or stretching the limbs is called "bending and stretching." Coming, going, stopping, rising, sitting, lying down are called "walking, standing, sitting, lying down." Inanimate objects also have indicative form, which will be discussed later. These forms express the various external behaviors and actions manifested by sentient beings, visible to others and known to oneself; hence they are called indicative forms. Indicative form is a false form. It is a form included in the mental sphere, manifested upon the internal form object which is a "correspondence-object," appearing as a mental object. Eye-consciousness cannot discriminate it; it is an object discriminated by the mind-consciousness.

Original Text: Furthermore, apparent form refers to forms that are clearly manifest, the domain of eye-consciousness. Shape/form refers to forms that are aggregates, the differentiating characteristics such as long, short, etc. Indicative form refers to the continuous arising and ceasing of these aggregated forms. Due to causes of change, [the form] does not arise again in the previously arisen place but transforms to arise in a different place, either without interval or with interval, near or far, with differentiated arising. Or, it arises transformed in this very place. This is called indicative form.

Explanation: Below, apparent form, shape/form, and indicative form are explained further. What is apparent form? Apparent form refers to the differentiated forms manifested by light, etc. One aspect is the difference in the brightness and darkness of the object itself, which manifests different colors, resulting in the differentiated appearances of blue, yellow, red, white, etc. Another aspect is the difference in the intensity of external light, resulting in light and shadow, brightness and darkness, and other differentiated form appearances. Blue, red, yellow, white also display different color differences under illumination of varying brightness.

Due to the rotation and revolution of celestial bodies like the Earth, the range and degree of sunlight illuminating various objects and the void on the planet differ, resulting in different levels of brightness. Objects and the void can have various brightness levels: very bright, relatively dim, or pitch black. Therefore, light also has differences. Darkness also has differences: pitch black, slightly dark, etc. These differences arise due to the varying rays of light projected. There are many differences in dark appearances; light itself also has many differences in color; object colors have differences. All these apparent forms we see have differences. Therefore, apparent form is a kind of difference in brightness, a form object discerned by eye-consciousness.

Shape/form refers to the aggregated differences of length, shortness, etc. The form body manifests how long, how short, how square, how round it is. These differentiated appearances of length, shortness, squareness, roundness are called shape/form. They belong to forms included in the mental sphere and are discerned by the mind-consciousness.

Indicative form is the difference in transformation based on function. Due to certain karmic conditions, the physical body of sentient beings produces various movements and activities to adapt to the needs of survival. These movements and activities arise from the continuous arising and ceasing of form appearances, producing changes in form appearances or continuous changes in spatial position. These moving, transformable forms, relying on various karmic conditions to produce various differentiated form appearances, are called indicative forms. For example, the movement and transformation of the hand, fingers, arms, legs, head, eyes are called indicative forms.

Original Text: All such apparent forms, shape/forms, and indicative forms are the domain of the eye, the sphere of the eye; the domain of eye-consciousness, the sphere of eye-consciousness, the object of eye-consciousness; the domain of mind-consciousness, the sphere of mind-consciousness, the object of mind-consciousness. These are differences in name.

Explanation: All such apparent forms, shape/forms, and indicative forms are the domain of eye-consciousness, the sphere of eye-consciousness, and also the domain of mind-consciousness, the sphere of mind-consciousness. When we discriminate form objects, it is done simultaneously by both eye-consciousness and mind-consciousness. Eye-consciousness cannot discriminate form objects alone; mind-consciousness also cannot discriminate form objects alone. The two must combine to jointly discriminate form objects. Eye-consciousness discriminates the coarse apparent forms; mind-consciousness discriminates the subtle forms included in the mental sphere, namely shape/form, indicative form, and non-indicative form. The two consciousnesses must depend on each other and coexist. Eye-consciousness cannot operate alone; it cannot discriminate form objects alone; it must rely on mind-consciousness. Mind-consciousness relies on eye-consciousness to discriminate the mental objects (dharmas) manifested upon the form objects. Mind-consciousness cannot alone discriminate the mental objects displayed on the form objects; it must rely on eye-consciousness to complete the discrimination.

What mind-consciousness can discriminate alone are not the mental objects on the form objects, not the mental objects on the five sense objects. It discriminates objects of mere image (pratibhāsa-viṣaya). It can alone discriminate mental objects in dreams, in meditative concentration, mental objects not dependent on the five sense objects, including mental objects apprehended by the scattered mind. At this time, the mind-consciousness is called the scattered exclusive mental consciousness (pravicara-manovijñāna), the dream exclusive mental consciousness (svapna-manovijñāna), and the meditative exclusive mental consciousness (dhyāna-manovijñāna). The mental objects it discerns differ from the mental objects manifested on the five sense objects. For eye-consciousness to discriminate form objects, mind-consciousness must be present to cooperate jointly in discrimination and operation. Eye-consciousness cannot operate alone to discriminate form objects; it cannot alone read a book, alone look at sunlight, darkness, or emptiness; it cannot operate alone. For eye-consciousness to operate, mind-consciousness must cooperate. The two combine and operate together to complete the function of seeing form.

Original Text: Furthermore, this form is again of three kinds: pleasant apparent form, unpleasant apparent form, and neutral apparent form. [There are also forms] that appear similar to form but have different characteristics.

Explanation: Apparent form is divided into three kinds: pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral. There are also forms included in the mental sphere, similar to form but possessing different characteristics from apparent form, such as shape/form, indicative form, non-indicative form. These forms are also divided into pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral. The form objects corresponding to eye-consciousness are also divided into pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral. The discrimination and perception of pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral form objects are primarily performed by the mind-consciousness. Eye-consciousness can also discriminate and perceive the pleasantness, unpleasantness, and neutrality of apparent forms. For example, when sunlight suddenly shines, it is very glaring; eye-consciousness immediately perceives it and quickly avoids it. This is discriminated by eye-consciousness. Specifically, how glaring, how bright, how dim, how soft the light is—that is discriminated and perceived by the mind-consciousness through comparison, imagination, or direct perception.

Mind-consciousness will know whether the form object is pleasant or unpleasant; eye-consciousness also knows. Eye-consciousness discriminates more coarsely, more superficially, more directly, only discriminating the direct perceptual object. Mind-consciousness must engage in thinking, analysis, comparison, and imagination to perform discrimination; it has inferential cognition (anumāna) and erroneous cognition (abhāva/vikalpa), and sometimes direct perceptual cognition (pratyakṣa). Discriminating whether an external form object is pleasant or unpleasant, reaching a conclusion through comparison and thinking—that is the work of the mind-consciousness. Eye-consciousness knows immediately; it avoids it right away or accepts it immediately, may look at it longer, giving rise to the mental factor of greed.

Original Text: Its accompanying factors refer to the mental factors associated with it, namely attention, contact, feeling, perception, volition, and other mental factors associated and concomitant with eye-consciousness.

Explanation: Next, the accompanying factors of eye-consciousness are explained. What are accompanying factors? They are the mental factors that arise simultaneously with eye-consciousness, assisting and accompanying its operation, helping eye-consciousness to arise and perform its discriminative function. These are called accompanying factors. What are these accompanying factors? They are the five universal mental factors (sarvatraga-caitta). Eye-consciousness has its own mental factors: attention (manaskāra), contact (sparśa), feeling (vedanā), perception (saṃjñā), and volition (cetanā). Whenever eye-consciousness arises and operates, it must use these mental factors; relying on them, it can operate. For example, attention: eye-consciousness must direct the attention of the consciousness to the form object, paying special attention to this form object, focusing on it. This is attention. After attending, eye-consciousness will inevitably contact this form object; eye-consciousness must contact the form object. The form object is the internal form object arising in the occipital region, not the external substantial material form object; eye-consciousness can only contact the internal form object.

After contact, eye-consciousness itself gives rise to various feelings: painful, pleasant, and neutral (neither-painful-nor-pleasant). For example, contacting sunlight, eye-consciousness immediately feels it is glaring and will avoid it, cover the eyes, or close the eyes. This is painful feeling. After feeling, it gives rise to the perception mental factor. The perception mental factor of eye-consciousness is to discern, to apprehend pleasant or unpleasant characteristics, or neutral characteristics. Eye-consciousness knows this is light, and it is glaring sunlight; it has discerned this form object characteristic. Then it gives rise to the volition mental factor. Volition is decision and intention. What does it decide? It decides to avoid this strong sunlight; the behavioral intention is to immediately close the eyes or immediately avoid or cover it. If it is a liked form object, the five universal mental factors of eye-consciousness will continuously arise and operate until the discrimination is complete, until the form object is clear and satisfying. Therefore, when the eye-consciousness mind arises, it must rely on these mental factors to operate: attention, contact, feeling, perception, volition.

The mental factors of eye-consciousness, besides the five universal mental factors—attention, contact, feeling, perception, volition—also include other mental factors associated with eye-consciousness, such as the five object-determining mental factors (viṣayaniyata-caitta), the eleven wholesome mental factors (kuśala-caitta), the afflictions of greed, hatred, delusion, and the secondary afflictions (upakleśa), etc.

Original Text: Furthermore, those dharmas have the same object of perception but not the same mode of activity. They are concomitant, associated, and each operates individually.

Explanation: These mental factors have the same object of perception; they all perceive the same form object appearance, perceiving the same form object to operate. For example, if eye-consciousness perceives sunlight, the five universal mental factors all perceive the sunlight: attention attends to the sunlight, contact contacts the sunlight, feeling feels the sunlight, perception perceives the sunlight, volition arises intending action regarding the sunlight. If eye-consciousness perceives tables, chairs, or benches, the five universal mental factors will all perceive the tables, chairs, or benches; they do not each perceive different form appearances. Same object of perception: perceiving the same form appearance, but not the same mode of activity. Although the five mental factors perceive the same form object, each has its own mode of activity; they are different from each other. For example, attention has one mode of activity, contact has another, feeling has another, perception has another, volition has another. Their modes of activity are different, but the perceived object is the same form object. They are concomitant and associated, each operating individually yet in mutual correspondence. Therefore, the mental factors of eye-consciousness definitely perceive the same form object, but their modes of activity are different. In this way, the mental factors operate together in harmony, enabling eye-consciousness to produce a series of discriminative functions.

Original Text: Furthermore, all of them each arise from their own seeds.

Explanation: Furthermore, all of them each arise from their own seeds. All these mental factors arise from the seeds of eye-consciousness, from their own seeds. "Own seeds" means the seeds of eye-consciousness; they all arise from the seeds of eye-consciousness, arising along with eye-consciousness, existing along with it. When the ālaya-vijñāna projects the eye-consciousness seeds and produces eye-consciousness, the five universal mental factors also arise accordingly. The attention mental factor first becomes active; at the seed stage, it becomes alert to the form object. Afterwards, it contacts the form object. Then, feeling, perception, and volition mental factors operate one after another, all operating on the same present form object, that is, operating on the internal form object in the occipital region.

The operation of eye-consciousness, its discrimination of form objects, must rely on these mental factors to function. Thus, we can understand what the operation of the ālaya-vijñāna relies on to function. It also relies on the five universal mental factors of the eighth consciousness: attention, contact, feeling, perception, volition. Only then can the ālaya-vijñāna operate and produce all dharmas, manifesting all dharmas. The other consciousnesses also rely on mental factors in this way to operate and perform discrimination.

Original Text: Its functions, it should be understood, are of six kinds. Only discerning its own object-sphere is called the first function. Only discerning its own characteristic. Only discerning the present. Only momentary discernment.

Explanation: What, then, are the functions of the five universal mental factors of eye-consciousness? What functions can they perform? The mental factors of eye-consciousness have six kinds of functions; they can perform six functions. The first: Only discerning its own object-sphere is called the initial function. The mental factors of eye-consciousness can only discern the sphere corresponding to themselves, which is the form object sphere. They cannot discern sound, cannot discern smell objects, cannot discern touch objects; they can only discern form objects, and moreover, only the internal form object at the subtle faculty. This is for sentient beings who have not attained the mutual use of the six faculties; those who have cultivated the mutual use and interpenetration of the six faculties are excluded. Discerning its own object-sphere is called the initial function; this is the first kind.

The second, "only discerning its own characteristic," means that attention has the function of attention; it only performs the function of alerting the mind, directing the mind towards the object. It cannot contact, cannot produce feeling or perception, cannot intend and perform actions. In short, each mental factor cannot exceed its own boundaries. The third, "only discerning the present," means that eye-consciousness is direct perception (pratyakṣa); it can discern the present direct perceptual object. It does not discern past form objects, nor does it discern future form objects that have not yet appeared. The five universal mental factors only perceive the present form object; they only discern the present. Whatever is seen right now is what it is. Eye-consciousness does not analyze, does not reason or judge, does not engage in inference or comparison, nor does it give rise to imagination or thought.

The fourth, "only momentary discernment," is because consciousness seeds are momentary arising and ceasing. In the same location, one consciousness seed arises and then ceases, having discerned that moment, returning to the ālaya-vijñāna. The next consciousness seed arises and ceases, having discerned the form object of the second moment, returning to the ālaya-vijñāna. Subsequent consciousness seeds are all like this in sequence, discerning momentarily, discerning the present moment. All momentary discernments connect together, forming the continuous discriminative function of eye-consciousness. Sentient beings then feel that they are continuously seeing form, feeling that this function is very real and reliable, belonging to themselves, something they possess. Thus, they cling to this function of seeing form, unable to relinquish it. In this way, birth and death are continuous, suffering is continuous. Therefore, sentient beings are truly foolish and pitiable.

Original Text: Furthermore, there are two functions: following the mind-consciousness in transformation; following the wholesome and defiled in transformation; following the initiation of karma in transformation. Furthermore, it is able to grasp pleasant and unpleasant results. This is the sixth function.

Explanation: Among these, "following the mind-consciousness in transformation" is further divided into two kinds: one is "following the wholesome and defiled in transformation," and the other is "following the initiation of karma in transformation." "Following the mind-consciousness in transformation" means following the mind-consciousness to jointly discern the form object sphere, giving rise to various mental formations. Eye-consciousness cannot alone discern and initiate mental formations. Eye-consciousness depends on mind-consciousness, follows wholesome and defiled karmic conditions to revolve. Following wholesome conditions, it performs wholesome discrimination, creating wholesome karma. It has wholesome mental factors, and relatively unwholesome mental factors. Following defiled, unwholesome conditions, it performs defiled, unwholesome discrimination. It can also perform neutral (avyākṛta) discrimination without good or evil, because it has the three natures: wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral. Eye-consciousness has forms it likes to see, forms it dislikes to see, and sometimes it manifests indifference towards form objects, a neutral nature. For liked forms, it gives rise to the greed mental factor, creating greedy karma. For disliked forms, it gives rise to aversion, creating unwholesome karma. It can also create neutral karma.

When sunlight is too bright and glaring, eye-consciousness dislikes seeing it and will avoid it. For soft colors it likes, it will look longer; sometimes it can look or not look depending on circumstances. Therefore, eye-consciousness has mental formations: wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral mental formations. "Following the wholesome and defiled in transformation" means operating according to the conditions of wholesome and unwholesome seeds. When wholesome seeds manifest, it performs wholesome discrimination, and mental formations are pure. When unwholesome seeds manifest, it performs unwholesome discrimination, and mental formations are defiled.

Another function: eye-consciousness "follows the initiation of karma in transformation." What does "initiation of karma" mean? It means that the conditions for eye-consciousness are fully present and manifest. When the mental faculty (manas) attends to a form object, deliberates, and decides to discern it, then the ālaya-vijñāna, knowing the mental formations of the mental faculty, manifests the form object and the mental objects upon it based on karmic seeds and conditions. When the nine conditions for eye-consciousness to arise are complete, the ālaya-vijñāna produces eye-consciousness. Eye-consciousness then, following the instruction of the mental faculty, attends to the form object, contacts it, receives and experiences it, thus discerning the form object, subsequently giving rise to the volition mental factor, deciding to accept or reject. In this way, eye-consciousness continuously attends, contacts, experiences, and discerns until it confirms the form object is correct and has seen enough. When the karmic conditions for eye-consciousness are complete, eye-consciousness must contact the form; subsequently, the activity aggregate (saṃskāra) of eye-consciousness is produced. When the karmic seeds of greed, hatred, and delusion manifest, eye-consciousness must attend to the form, contact the form, continuously experience and discern the form, giving rise to various mental formations to satisfy its own mental formations of greed, hatred, and delusion.

Many external form objects could actually be left unseen, unknown. But due to karmic obstructions, the mental faculty is not subdued, and its grasping does not cease. The grasping attention of eye-consciousness itself will thus continuously manifest, continuously giving rise to attention and contact towards various useful and useless form objects, causing the activity aggregate to operate continuously without cessation. After eye-consciousness sees form, the mind-consciousness then produces various mental formations, those wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral mental formations, causing the thinking and discrimination of the mind-consciousness to be continuous, and the mind cannot become still. All of this will be stored as karmic seeds back into the ālaya-vijñāna, causing future birth and death karmic conditions to be unceasing.

The arising of eye-consciousness thus follows karma in transformation. When karmic seeds manifest, karmic conditions manifest, eye-consciousness must arise. Therefore, sometimes, even though one knows one should not look at something, due to karmic conditions, one still wants to look. Even knowing one shouldn't look, one still looks. This is "following the initiation of karma in transformation." When the karmic conditions for eye-consciousness to arise mature, and all nine conditions are complete, eye-consciousness inevitably arises, the five universal mental factors begin to operate, and eye-consciousness discerns the form object. Sometimes, as soon as we open our eyes, regardless of whether we like or dislike seeing form, all forms before us are seen, regardless of distance, everything is taken in.

The sixth function: eye-consciousness "is able to grasp pleasant and unpleasant results." "Grasp" (upādāna) means to grasp or cling. "Pleasant" (iṣṭa) means liked; "unpleasant" (aniṣṭa) means disliked; "results" (phala) here refer to the form objects, the objects discriminated. Craving and liking, aversion and rejection—these two opposing aspects are both included in "grasping," mistakenly taking the form objects as real, hence performing discrimination of acceptance and rejection. For liked form objects, one grasps, looks longer, sometimes cannot get enough, not knowing when to stop. For disliked form objects, one wants to avoid, reject, leave immediately, not wanting to give rise to attention directed towards this form object anymore. Thus, the volition mental factor decides not to look anymore. Both grasping and rejecting are classified as grasping. In this way, it grasps pleasant and unpleasant form objects. For pleasant form objects, eye-consciousness discerns for a longer time, the mental factors continuously repeat and take turns manifesting. For unpleasant form objects, one wants to avoid it. This is called grasping pleasant and unpleasant results. Therefore, the mental factors of eye-consciousness have these six characteristics.