An Explanation of the Twelve Nidānas in the Āgama Sutras

Section 2  Explanation of Terms and Concepts

1. The Meaning of Nāma-rūpa

Rūpa refers to material form composed of the four great elements—earth, water, fire, and wind—which is visible to the naked eye, such as the aggregate of form. Nāma refers to name-based dharmas, which are invisible to the naked eye but have functions; they can act upon the physical body, combining with it to form the aggregate of form, and can be perceived and observed, such as: the aggregate of feeling, the aggregate of perception, the aggregate of volitional formations, and the aggregate of consciousness. Nāma-rūpa constitutes the five-aggregate body of sentient beings, which is the unreal self of sentient beings life after life. This self is not solid; it can be destroyed and can perish; it is a dharma of arising, abiding, changing, and ceasing; therefore it is not a self, but is provisionally named a self. Nāma includes the manas and its functions, as well as the six consciousnesses and their functions.

2. Pratyekabuddhas of Conditions and Solitary Pratyekabuddhas

Pratyekabuddhas are of two kinds: one is the pratyekabuddha of conditions (pratyaya-buddha), and the other is the solitary pratyekabuddha. A pratyekabuddha of conditions is born in an era when a Buddha is present in the world. When the Buddha teaches the dharma of the twelve links of dependent origination, the pratyekabuddha of conditions cultivates the twelve links of dependent origination by following the Buddha, deeply and minutely contemplating and investigating the dharma of causes and conditions in profound meditative concentration, and finally attains the fruit of a pratyekabuddha. He personally realizes that the world of the five aggregates is all produced by causes and conditions—lacking even one condition, it would not arise. Since it is a dharma produced by causes and conditions, it is empty, without self-nature, and impermanent. Realizing this principle makes one a pratyekabuddha of conditions.

A solitary pratyekabuddha appears at a time when there is no Buddha and no Three Jewels present in the world. He contemplates on his own the impermanent phenomena of the world, gradually groping his way toward the dharma of the twelve links of dependent origination, and personally realizes each of the twelve links. Solitary pratyekabuddhas have cultivated alongside Buddhas life after life and possess extremely deep roots of goodness. Although in this life they come into the human world without encountering a Buddha present in the world teaching the dharma, and without the Buddha-dharma being present, because of the roots of goodness and merit cultivated in previous lives, upon seeing some phenomenon in the world, doubt arises in their minds, triggering deep contemplation. For example, when the autumn wind blows and leaves fall from the trees, the solitary pratyekabuddha, upon seeing this, gives rise to a question in his mind. In order to understand this phenomenon, he goes alone into deep mountains and dense forests to cultivate in solitude, continuously and deeply contemplating and investigating these phenomena of arising and ceasing.

The solitary pratyekabuddha contemplates: A person is born and will also die; a tree loses all its leaves in autumn, and they grow again in spring—what is going on here? Why do all things have arising and ceasing? So he cultivates meditative concentration while continuously exploring the causes and conditions within. Sitting quietly in contemplation every day, he seeks the source from which all things arise—this is also called Chan meditation, or contemplative cultivation. After many years of arduous cultivation, he finally awakens to the dharma of the twelve links of dependent origination, realizes the non-self of persons, and knows that all things and all dharmas in the world are produced by causes and conditions, and that dharmas produced by causes and conditions are empty, provisional, and impermanent, thereby attaining the fruit of a pratyekabuddha.

Because the solitary pratyekabuddha possesses the four dhyānas and eight meditative absorptions, at the time of attaining the fruit of a pratyekabuddha, due to the power of meditative concentration (samādhi), supernatural powers manifest, and thereafter he uses these supernatural powers to deliver sentient beings. If he goes out to beg for food and sentient beings give him food and drink, in order to repay them he will manifest supernatural powers—walking, standing, sitting, and lying in the air; water emerging from the upper part of his body and fire from the lower part; fire emerging from the upper part and water from the lower part; boring through mountains and entering the earth. Sentient beings who see this are filled with admiration, and thus give rise to faith and joy in the Buddha-dharma and follow him in cultivation. When a pratyekabuddha's conditions in the world are exhausted, he will enter nirvāṇa without remainder, leave this world, and no longer come to the three realms.

After arhats and pratyekabuddhas attain nirvāṇa, they all leave the world of the three realms, and the Buddha-dharma can no longer continue to spread in the world; those suffering sentient beings cannot be delivered. Therefore the Buddha said that the compassion of the Two Vehicles is thin—they only wish to extinguish their own suffering, without considering helping sentient beings also leave suffering behind. But bodhisattvas have great compassion; they never abandon any enterprise that benefits and brings joy to sentient beings. They cultivate the four immeasurable minds of loving-kindness, compassion, joy, and equanimity, make the Ten Endless Vows, and life after life extensively benefit sentient beings without end, until they attain buddhahood, never entering nirvāṇa without remainder. After attaining buddhahood, they then transform into immeasurable, countless five-aggregate bodies to benefit and bring joy to boundless sentient beings.

3. What Does the "Consciousness" in the Twelve Links and the Ten Links of Dependent Origination Refer To?

In the twelve links of dependent origination—ignorance conditions volitional formations (avidyā-pratyayāḥ saṃskārāḥ), volitional formations condition consciousness, consciousness conditions nāma-rūpa—the consciousness here refers to the six consciousnesses, because the bodily, verbal, and mental actions created by the six consciousnesses store karmic seeds for future lives, and only by entering the womb can there be nāma-rūpa in future lives. But in the ten links of dependent origination, where it says consciousness conditions nāma-rūpa, and nāma-rūpa conditions consciousness, the consciousness here does not refer to the six consciousnesses. Because the meaning of "nāma-rūpa conditions consciousness" is that nāma-rūpa depends on this consciousness in order to have the phenomena of arising, abiding, changing, and ceasing; this consciousness exists first, and only afterward is there nāma-rūpa, and only then the six consciousnesses. Nāma-rūpa already includes the six consciousnesses, so the six consciousnesses exist in dependence upon nāma-rūpa; they are subject to arising, abiding, changing, and ceasing, and also depend on this consciousness in order to have arising, abiding, changing, and ceasing. Therefore the consciousness in "nāma-rūpa conditions consciousness" is not in an equivalent relationship with the six consciousnesses, but in a relationship of that which gives birth and that which is given birth to. This consciousness is the fundamental consciousness existing prior to the beginning of heaven and earth—the Ālayavijñāna, which is unborn and undying and can give birth to all dharmas.

4. The Meaning of Dependent Origination and Emptiness of Nature

Dependent origination and emptiness of nature is observed from the perspective of the emptiness of dharmas in the Small Vehicle, examining that all dharmas born of the tathāgatagarbha are worldly dharmas; it is not observed from the perspective of the Great Vehicle tathāgatagarbha. In the worldly realm, all dharmas arise due to causes and conditions; their forms and substances are empty, subject to arising and ceasing, subject to decay and ruin, not long-lasting, unobtainable, and cannot be grasped. This is viewing the nature of worldly dharmas from the perspective of the Small Vehicle, while the cause is the origin and source from which all dharmas are initiated; it can also be said to be the karmic seeds of actions created in the past, including the three kinds of karma—wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral (avyākṛta). Conditions are the people, things, and environments that facilitate and assist the manifestation of karmic seeds as retribution. When causes and conditions are complete, karmic results are realized. For any dharma born of causes and conditions, when the causes and conditions change, the dharma also changes. Therefore all learning and livelihood occupations in the world also change along with the constantly changing conditions of the world; they are not fixed and unchanging.

But the transcendent truth is not a dharma born of causes and conditions, and therefore does not change. If it could change, it could not be called truth and noble truth. Only the seventh consciousness exists without cause or condition. In fact, the existence of the seventh consciousness also has a cause, namely the one thought of ignorance of the seventh consciousness. If this one thought of ignorance is extinguished, the seventh consciousness will cease and no longer exist. The existence of the seventh consciousness has no condition; it has existed since beginningless kalpas, and no assisting condition for its arising can be found. Therefore the seventh consciousness has no beginning; because ignorance has no beginning, it is called beginningless ignorance (anādi-avidyā).

Since all dharmas are dependently originated and empty in nature, and the cause is also empty in nature and subject to ceasing, and the conditions are also empty in nature and subject to ceasing, then when the causes and conditions perish, all dharmas also perish. This does not involve the Great Vehicle dharma of the tathāgatagarbha; it does not touch upon the fact that the tathāgatagarbha gives birth to all these dharmas, so it is called the emptiness dharma of the Small Vehicle. If the tathāgatagarbha is not involved, the emptiness of all dharmas does not land on the fundamental point; it is as if all dharmas exist, and therefore they are dependently originated and empty in nature. In fact, all dharmas, viewed from the perspective of the Great Vehicle tathāgatagarbha, are all the tathāgatagarbha; there are no substantial dharmas at all. All dharmas do not arise, and therefore do not cease either, because they are transformed aspects of the tathāgatagarbha—what is there that arises, and what is there that can cease? None of them goes beyond the tathāgatagarbha.

The emptiness of the Small Vehicle is the emptiness of destruction and ruin, while the emptiness of the Great Vehicle tathāgatagarbha is the emptiness-nature mind that is unborn and undying; the two are essentially different and cannot be conflated. Dependent origination and emptiness of nature is that kind of emptiness-voidness of the Small Vehicle dharma, which has not yet touched upon the cultivation content of the Great Vehicle tathāgatagarbha dharma. Therefore dependent origination and emptiness of nature is not ultimate; one still needs to awaken to what the ultimate meaning of all worldly dharmas is, and what their essence is.

After attaining the fruit of an arhat and the fruit of a pratyekabuddha, one then turns to the Great Vehicle dharma to cultivate the tathāgatagarbha dharma. After realizing the tathāgatagarbha, one then gradually engages in contemplative practice (vipaśyanā-caryā) on the worldly dharmas of the five aggregates, and will then know the relationship between the five aggregates and the tathāgatagarbha, the truth of the birth and perishing of the five aggregates, thoroughly awakening to the nature of the tathāgatagarbha and the essence of the world of the five aggregates. Only when ignorance is completely extinguished can one attain buddhahood. Merely awakening to the dependent origination and emptiness of nature of the world of the five aggregates is only realizing the emptiness on the Small Vehicle side; one still cannot attain buddhahood.

5. How to Correctly Understand "Volitional Formations Condition Consciousness, Consciousness Conditions Nāma-rūpa"

First, there may be misunderstandings in the translation of the Buddhist sūtras. Because the levels of cultivation and realization of the translators varied, with different levels of realization, and some translators had no realization at all, the translated Buddhist sūtras have discrepancies in dharma meaning—one person's translation is at one level, and multiple people's translations are at multiple levels. In the past, Small Vehicle practitioners did not understand the manas. When translating the sūtras and encountering that portion of dharma meaning concerning the manas, their understanding was biased, and some simply could not understand it. If such a person's meditative concentration was very good, this deficiency could be compensated for in cultivation and realization, but in explaining and translating the sūtras there was no way to make up for this deficiency, leading later generations—those without meditative concentration—to various misunderstandings and inability to realize the truth, so they had no choice but to resort to inference, analysis, and speculation.

If a Buddhist learner has not yet fully penetrated the dharma meaning and is unable to understand and realize the manas, their understanding of the sūtras will involve misunderstanding and lack of penetration. For example, in the twelve links of dependent origination—ignorance conditions volitional formations, volitional formations condition consciousness—no matter how one thinks about it, one cannot figure out what the volitional formations and consciousness refer to, cannot sort out the relationship between the two, and will get the sequence of their operation reversed. If the consciousness in "volitional formations condition consciousness" is understood as the seventh consciousness or the eighth consciousness, then the dharma meaning is wildly wrong. What volitional formations could produce the seventh consciousness? Only the volitional formations of the eighth consciousness could produce the seventh consciousness, but the eighth consciousness has no ignorance, so "ignorance conditions volitional formations" cannot be explained. What volitional formations could produce the eighth consciousness? No volitional formation in the mundane or supramundane world can produce the eighth consciousness. Therefore the consciousness in "volitional formations condition consciousness, consciousness conditions nāma-rūpa" is neither the seventh consciousness nor the eighth consciousness; it can only be the six consciousnesses.

Then what volitional formations can produce the six consciousnesses? The six consciousnesses here actually refer to the karmic seeds of the six consciousnesses; only bodily, verbal, and mental actions can produce the karmic seeds of the six consciousnesses. Bodily, verbal, and mental actions and the six consciousnesses are in a parallel, side-by-side relationship, so the six consciousnesses are not produced by bodily, verbal, and mental actions; rather, it is the karmic seeds of the six consciousnesses that are produced by bodily, verbal, and mental actions. The six consciousnesses can only be born by the eighth consciousness, with the ignorance of the seventh consciousness as an assisting condition. The eighth consciousness, in accordance with the ignorance of the seventh consciousness, gives birth to the six consciousnesses, which create bodily, verbal, and mental actions and store the karmic seeds of the six consciousnesses, as the cause for the birth of the five aggregates and nāma-rūpa in future lives. Only with this chain-link-by-link operation is there the complete twelve links of dependent origination and the suffering of birth-and-death in saṃsāra.

6. "All Dharmas Arise from Causes and Conditions; I Say They Are Therefore Empty"

The cause is the internal driving force for the birth of all dharmas; it can also be called karmic seeds, or the karmic actions created in past lives. Conditions are the external conditions and external forces needed for the birth of all dharmas. Only with the cause of karmic seeds plus external conditions can dharmas be born. But there is yet another factor: who is it that gives birth to the dharmas through causes and conditions? This factor is none other than the Ālayavijñāna.

For example, take the birth of wheat: the cause is the wheat seed, and the conditions are climate, soil, and so on. When causes and conditions are complete, the wheat sprout is born. But the wheat sprout cannot actively give birth to itself; it also requires human effort to plant the seed in the soil, to fertilize, irrigate, water, and ventilate. Without human labor, even if there are wheat seeds and there are earth, water, fire, and wind, the two cannot combine, and the wheat sprout cannot be born.

Likewise, if there are only karmic seeds and external conditions, without the Ālayavijñāna integrating the two, dharmas will not be born. Because dharmas are composed of the seeds of the seven great elements, and the Ālayavijñāna contains these seeds of the seven great elements and also contains karmic seeds; external conditions and external forces are also dharmas among dharmas, likewise composed of the seeds of the seven great elements, born of the Ālayavijñāna. Therefore all dharmas, whatever dharma they may be, are born of the Ālayavijñāna—that is, born of causes and conditions.

Since dharmas are born of causes and conditions, they did not originally exist but were born afterward; what is born will perish. When the causes and conditions perish, the dharmas will perish. Therefore dharmas are empty; dharmas born of causes and conditions are empty, utterly unobtainable.