A Guide to the Cultivation and Realization of the Mind: Part Two

Chapter Two: The Relationship Between Manas and Consciousness 

I. Manas is the Co-existent Support of Consciousness

"Co-existent support" (sahabhū-ālambana): "Co-existent" means two or more dharmas existing together; "co-existent" implies being together inherently from birth, present together at the moment of birth. "Support" means dependence; the existence of this depends on that, meaning this dharma relies on that dharma to arise and exist.

Some say the five sense faculties are the co-existent support of consciousness, meaning the five sense faculties are the necessary condition for the arising of consciousness. Without the five sense faculties, there would be no consciousness; the presence of consciousness necessarily requires the five sense faculties. But is this truly the case? Considering the forms of sentient beings, many beings lack the five sense faculties yet still possess consciousness. For example, formless realm devas, bodhisattvas and great arhats manifesting without physical bodies, etc., all possess consciousness yet lack the five sense faculties. The independent consciousness (mano-vijñāna) of all sentient beings does not rely on the five sense faculties to arise and exist. In profound meditative absorption (dhyāna), consciousness can function outside the body, still discerning sense objects without needing the five sense faculties. Therefore, the five sense faculties are not the co-existent support of consciousness. The co-existent support of consciousness is the eighth consciousness (ālaya-vijñāna), manas, and seeds (bīja).

The conditions required for consciousness to arise are very few, so it arises easily and ceases easily. The five sense consciousnesses (pañca-vijñāna) cease entirely and do not exist in the meditative absorption (dhyāna) of the second dhyāna and above. Consciousness only ceases in the state of no-thought (asaṃjñi-samāpatti) and the state of cessation (nirodha-samāpatti). Therefore, it is said that the co-existent support of consciousness is not the five sense faculties nor the five sense consciousnesses, but manas. Manas is the root from which consciousness can arise. Consciousness relies on manas to arise and function. Only after manas engages in mental application (manasikāra) and makes choices (adhimokṣa) can consciousness arise; otherwise, it cannot arise. Thus, consciousness is always accompanied by manas, serves manas, regulates and influences manas. However, manas does not necessarily accompany consciousness; it does not necessarily coexist with consciousness. There are many instances when manas exists alone, such as during sleep.

II. The Four Types of Relationships Between Manas and Consciousness

Human psychological problems are generally problems of manas. When manas is not understood or vented for a long time and is suppressed over time, psychological problems arise, manifesting as psychological symptoms. To alleviate the psychological problems of manas, one relies on others who understand psychology, and two, on one's own consciousness. When consciousness clearly understands the psychological state of manas and possesses methods, capabilities, and wisdom to solve problems, it can gradually alleviate the psychological emotions of manas, allowing manas to feel relieved and open, eliminating depression, and enabling the venting of suppressed emotions.

Generally speaking, the relationship between manas and consciousness can be broadly categorized into four types. The harmonious and consistent state between consciousness and manas can be divided into two situations, and the disharmonious and inconsistent state between consciousness and manas can also be divided into two situations.

The first situation: Manas is wholesome (kuśala), consciousness is also wholesome; the two are harmoniously and consistently wholesome. Consciousness does not oppose manas and can even enhance the wholesomeness of manas. The result is wholesome actions without hesitation, genuine and unreserved wholesomeness, wholesomeness from the inside out. There are no psychological problems; after performing wholesome deeds, the mind feels even more relieved. This is great wholesomeness, capable of yielding great wholesome karmic results; wholesome karmic seeds mature quickly, and the wholesome retribution is received quickly.

The second situation: Manas is unwholesome (akuśala), consciousness is also unwholesome; the two are harmoniously and consistently unwholesome. Consciousness does not oppose manas in the slightest and even enhances the unwholesomeness of manas. The two then act together in genuine and unreserved unwholesomeness without hesitation. After committing unwholesome karmic actions, they feel even more relieved and psychologically comfortable, without feeling shame or remorse, exhibiting no psychological problems. But this is great unwholesomeness; unwholesome karmic seeds mature quickly, and the unwholesome retribution is received quickly.

The third situation: Manas is unwholesome, but consciousness is wholesome. When consciousness is single-mindedly inclined towards wholesomeness, manas feels uncomfortable and unwilling to be wholesome. However, pressured by the environment, it has to be wholesome. Manas then develops psychological problems, and afterward, it might regret it. This psychological problem can sometimes be resolved, sometimes not. This belongs to true unwholesomeness disguised as false wholesomeness; its essence is unwholesome. If the unwholesome force of manas is greater than the environmental force, and the wholesomeness of consciousness is relatively weak, failing to influence manas and the influence being unsuccessful, unwholesome karmic actions will be committed. This is true unwholesomeness. But it is not always the case. If consciousness is influenced by a wholesome environment, becoming increasingly wholesome, infects manas, and overcomes the unwholesomeness of manas, it might commit wholesome karmic actions in the future and cease unwholesome actions.

The fourth situation: Manas is wholesome, but consciousness, influenced by the environment, has unwholesome thoughts. When manas is forced by the environment to commit unwholesome actions, psychological shadows, suppression, and regret arise. This psychological problem can sometimes be confessed and remedied, sometimes not. The psychological knot in manas is then tied. This belongs to true wholesomeness disguised as false unwholesomeness; its essence is not bad. If the wholesome force of manas is relatively strong, and the unwholesome force of consciousness is weak, unable to overcome wholesomeness or influence it, ultimately, the wholesomeness of manas prevails, and wholesome karmic actions are committed. But this does not mean it is always so. If the unwholesome environment persists, and the unwholesome force of consciousness strengthens, manas might also submit to the unwholesomeness of consciousness and decide to commit unwholesome karmic actions. Manas is then successfully influenced by unwholesomeness.

III. Why Can Only Defiled Manas Give Rise to Defiled First Six Consciousnesses?

Because the first six consciousnesses arise based on the choices (cetanā cetasika) of manas; they are what manas requires. What manas needs, the six consciousnesses arise to do. Therefore, if manas is defiled, the six consciousnesses will consequently commit defiled karmic actions. If manas is pure, the six consciousnesses will consequently commit pure karmic actions. According to the root cause of sentient beings' cyclic existence (saṃsāra) revealed by the twelve links of dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda), it is because manas has ignorance (avidyā). With ignorance as the condition, the volitional formations (saṃskāra) of manas's ignorance arise. With the volitional formations of manas's ignorance as the condition, the bodily, verbal, and mental actions (karma) of the six consciousnesses' ignorance arise. These bodily, verbal, and mental actions all fall into the ālaya-vijñāna (storehouse consciousness) and become seeds (bīja).

The actions (saṃskāra) of manas, meaning the volitional choices of manas, after manas makes a choice, the six consciousnesses arise to assist manas in performing actions. Therefore, if manas is defiled and has ignorance, the six consciousnesses, as assistants, must assist manas in committing defiled karmic actions. Even if manas is defiled, when it does not choose defiled actions, consciousness can rely on its own purity to influence manas. If manas approves of the wholesome actions of consciousness, then pure karmic actions will be produced. Therefore, spiritual practice (bhāvanā) is to cultivate wholesome dharmas and use these wholesome dharmas to influence manas, thereby eliminating the ignorance of manas and transforming manas. The mind then becomes pure, and in the future, there will be pure karmic results to enjoy.

IV. Spiritual Practice is to Cleanse the Mind Ground

The manifestation of the independent realm (pratyakṣa-ālambana) occurs because manas grasps at mental objects (dharmāyatana), applies mental attention (manasikāra) to mental objects, and then gives rise to thoughts. The Tathāgatagarbha then gives rise to the independent consciousness (mano-vijñāna) to fulfill the instructions of manas and realize the thoughts of manas. Wherever manas applies mental attention, the independent consciousness arises there and then operates according to the will of manas. Only after consciousness gives rise to thoughts does knowing occur—knowing what the dharma is. This dharma is a mental object similar to information, unrelated to the five sense objects (pañcaviṣaya). It might be a thought or concept, a memory or imagination, an aspiration for the future, or an analysis and judgment of a problem. If manas wants to recall, consciousness remembers past people and events. If manas wants to know the meaning of a certain sentence, consciousness analyzes that sentence. If manas needs to consider the next day's itinerary, consciousness contemplates the arrangements for the next day.

The arising of thoughts in the independent consciousness is guided by manas; it arises, ceases, and shifts according to the thoughts and ideas of manas. For example, when manas thinks of a person, the eighth consciousness immediately manifests dharmas related to that person. After manas contacts (sparśa) and considers (cetanā), it decides to deliberate. Thus, the independent consciousness appears, applies mental attention to the dharmas related to that person, contacts, feels (vedanā), perceives (saṃjñā), and considers (cetanā). After manas knows, it will make a decision. Afterwards, the independent consciousness might continue to operate deeply or disappear from this dharma and appear elsewhere where manas grasps at other dharmas.

The various grasping of manas gives rise to distracting thoughts in the independent consciousness. The moment a thought first arises, no object is manifested. The first moment knows the arising of the thought, and only then does the image of the object appear. The arising of the thought and the manifestation of the object involve a process. The object was originally there, but without consciousness, it cannot be known. When consciousness appears, the first and second moments of discernment are incomplete and unclear. Only in the third and fourth moments of discernment does the dharma manifest relatively clearly, allowing a conclusion to be drawn and an outline of the dharma to emerge. Only afterward does analysis occur, clarifying the dharma.

Most distracting thoughts in the mind are from past experiences, called "previously encountered objects" (jātya-ālambana). Thus, it can be seen that manas often grasps dharmas intentionally or unintentionally, with strong habitual force. The mind is not empty; it cannot let go of all experienced people, events, and things, keeping these dharmas swirling in the mind, unwilling to abandon them, like garbage piling up in the heart, filthy and dirty, yet never knowing to clean it up. Spiritual practice is to regularly clean and tidy the hygiene within the mind, to conduct a major cleanup, maintaining the purity of the mind ground, so that the mind chamber can be bright and clean. Cleaning is led and supervised by consciousness, with manas agreeing. Still, it is consciousness that does the cleaning. Planning and executing tasks are done by consciousness; manas only needs to nod, issue orders, and make decisions.

V. Are Bodily, Verbal, and Mental Actions Created by Consciousness or by Manas?

Bodily, verbal, and mental actions are all created by consciousness, driven by the ignorance of manas. If manas were without ignorance, it would not prompt consciousness to create ignorant and defiled karmic actions. This is what is explained in the twelve links of dependent origination: The ignorance of manas prompts the arising of the volition (cetanā cetasika) of manas, leading to the choice to create bodily, verbal, and mental actions. After manas makes the choice, consciousness and the five sense consciousnesses arise and commit bodily, verbal, and mental actions that conform to the mental activities and choices of manas. Here, manas is the leader; consciousness merely obeys the regulation of manas. For example, a five-year-old child going out to buy soy sauce is directed by an adult; the adult manages household necessities at home and sends the child out to buy when supplies run low. For instance, an employee's work is arranged and assigned by a leader; the employee must obey the leader's management. For example, the operation of various industries in society is deployed by the national upper-level leadership core; lower-level units carry out work according to the deployment of the upper-level leadership departments and must not disobey orders.

On the surface, the bodily, verbal, and mental actions of sentient beings are all created by consciousness and the five sense consciousnesses. In essence, they reflect the will and propositions of manas, embodying the habits and tendencies of manas. A master and a servant operate harmoniously together, so the five aggregates (skandha) body is coordinated. If they cannot operate harmoniously, it might lead to manas developing schizophrenia and collapse, causing mental illness. Of course, sometimes when manas does not understand certain dharmas, it has no opinion or proposition and will follow the opinions and views of consciousness, even sometimes following blindly, not fully understanding what consciousness advocates. At this time, the strength of consciousness is revealed. If manas has wisdom, consciousness cannot be stronger than manas; manas always makes its own decisions.

VI. The Relationship Between Manas and the Bodily, Verbal, and Mental Actions of the Six Consciousnesses

Question: Since manas dominates the bodily, verbal, and mental actions of humans, in bodily and verbal actions, what specific roles do the six consciousnesses play?

Answer: Consciousness is the specific executor of bodily and verbal actions, meaning the creator. From bodily and verbal actions, one should know how consciousness operates and what roles it plays. For example, walking, standing, sitting, lying down, talking, laughing, eating, drinking, etc., are all operated by consciousness and the body consciousness (kāya-vijñāna), but the controller is manas. Superficially, it seems as if consciousness is directing, but consciousness only provides suggestions to manas; the specific decision lies with manas. During the operation, consciousness might generate other ideas and advise manas. If manas finds it reasonable, it will adopt it; if not, the decision and command remain unchanged, and consciousness must operate as usual.

Bodily actions are the combined operation of consciousness and body consciousness. Verbal actions are also the combined operation of consciousness and body consciousness. Seeing forms is the combined operation of consciousness and eye consciousness (cakṣur-vijñāna). Hearing sounds is the combined operation of consciousness and ear consciousness (śrotra-vijñāna). Smelling scents is the combined operation of consciousness and nose consciousness (ghrāṇa-vijñāna). Tasting flavors is the combined operation of consciousness and tongue consciousness (jihvā-vijñāna). Feeling touches is the combined operation of consciousness and body consciousness. In the operation of the six sense faculties, there is always the operation of consciousness. Without consciousness, the body of the five aggregates cannot move. If consciousness is weak, the body of the five aggregates also finds it difficult to move.

When sentient beings lack sufficient meditative concentration (samādhi) and observational wisdom (vipaśyanā-prajñā), they can only see the operation of the six consciousnesses in bodily, verbal, and mental actions; they cannot see the dominant and decision-making role of manas, let alone the fundamental role played by the eighth consciousness, because the operational characteristics of manas and the eighth consciousness are too subtle. Ordinary people, due to insufficient wholesome roots and merit (kuśala-mūla, puṇya), find it very difficult to observe them. Because they cannot observe them, some say that all dharmas are the functional roles of the six consciousnesses, that there is no such thing as manas and the eighth consciousness. This is the unwise view of the six-consciousness-only theory (ṣaḍ-vijñāna-vāda).

VII. What Use is Consciousness to Manas?

Consciousness, the five sense consciousnesses, and the five aggregates are all necessary tools for manas. Without these tools, manas itself is powerless in the world. It needs the six consciousnesses and the five aggregates to serve itself, using them to grasp all dharmas in the world. Without the six consciousnesses and the five aggregates, manas is helpless.

Therefore, manas can know many dharmas, but it must rely on consciousness to handle these dharmas. For example, if ghosts and spirits appear nearby, manas feels quite fearful, afraid they might threaten itself, but it cannot deal with them alone nor avoid them by itself. So, while the hairs stand on end, it alerts consciousness to know about this matter. Consciousness then wonders: What exactly is happening? Why do I feel afraid? Why does it feel eerie like something is happening around me? When consciousness is clever, it might realize there are ghosts and spirits nearby after thinking and then find a way to avoid them. This way, manas achieves its goal.

Therefore, although manas has knowing, matters need consciousness and the five aggregates to handle them. After manas realizes the dharma, the pure bodily, verbal, and mental actions require consciousness and the five aggregates to uphold them. Then, the pure bodily, verbal, and mental actions of the six consciousnesses reflect the purity of manas. However, after cultivating to a sufficiently high level, mastering the four dhyānas and eight samāpattis, possessing immeasurable spiritual powers and mastery of the Way, manas can replace the six consciousnesses. At this point, there is no need for the six consciousnesses to arise; everything is handled by manas itself, which is very fast and convenient. Therefore, the function and status of consciousness cannot compare to manas. Between them, it is always a master-servant relationship. The master uses the servant to handle trivial matters. When the master's ability is great, everything is handled by modernized programs, and the servant is no longer needed; everything can be handled well and skillfully by itself.

VIII. Why Can Manas and Consciousness Convey Thoughts to Each Other?

For example, if manas wants to eat, the Tathāgatagarbha, complying with the intention of manas, gives rise to consciousness. Manas then conveys to consciousness to discern the various dishes before it and choose which one it likes to eat. Consciousness can comprehend the thoughts of manas. After consciousness discerns, manas can also comprehend the thoughts of consciousness. The two can communicate instantly. However, when manas discerns dharmas from past lives and conveys them to consciousness, consciousness cannot comprehend them or only understands a little. Why is this? Because consciousness has not experienced past lives, it has no memory and cannot discern them.

Manas decides to discern various dishes to determine which one to eat. Consciousness then arises to discern on behalf of manas. After consciousness discerns and judges the characteristics of the various dishes, it conveys them to manas. Manas, after knowing, will decide what to eat. It is also possible that consciousness, relying solely on observation with the eye consciousness, cannot discern comprehensively. Manas then decides to taste a little. The tongue consciousness and nose consciousness then participate together in discerning and judging. After manas knows, it understands which one is delicious and to its liking, so it eats heartily, ignoring the unpalatable ones.

These dishes can be contacted directly by consciousness and the five sense consciousnesses together, so there is feeling (vedanā), perception (saṃjñā), and volition (cetanā), enabling judgment. Regarding dharmas from past lives, without spiritual powers, the five sense consciousnesses cannot contact them at all. Consciousness lacks mind-reading powers and has no experience; wisdom is insufficient, so it cannot know what manas is thinking and intending in its mind. If consciousness has great wisdom, it can clearly discern the dharmas thought, intended, and implied by manas in its mind.

Why can consciousness and manas convey thoughts to each other? Because manas contacts mental objects (dharmāyatana), giving rise to consciousness. The three then contact together. Regarding mental objects, not only can manas discern them, but consciousness can also discern them, differing only in the degree of discernment, whether it is clear or not. In this process, consciousness and manas are also constantly in contact; mind contacts mind, so naturally they can know each other's thoughts, differing only in the degree of knowing, with distinctions in depth and scope. As long as consciousness exists, it must be in contact with manas, so their respective thoughts can be conveyed and exchanged anytime, anywhere. If the exchange is poor, psychological discord arises; if the exchange is smooth, the mood is pleasant. This is somewhat similar to the relationship between two people interacting.

IX. How Should Consciousness Guide Manas?

The objects focused on by consciousness and manas are the same. What consciousness discerns must be the dharmas grasped by manas; otherwise, consciousness would not need to arise. Consciousness arises to serve manas; it must obey manas. However, after consciousness arises and discerns dharmas, through analysis, it forms its own views, which might contradict manas and not conform to manas's intentions. If consciousness has correct knowledge and views (samyag-dṛṣṭi), it can gradually transform manas, depending on how much manas can accept. If consciousness is too radical, it might anger manas, making it impossible to guide manas onto the path.

Therefore, if consciousness is clever, it will skillfully guide manas. If consciousness is foolish, it will be ineffective, perhaps even counterproductive, or it might be led around by manas. The consciousness of a Buddhist practitioner should hold this attitude towards manas: "If you lead me to run wildly, I will not follow. If you lead me to greed, hatred, and delusion, I will not follow." Gradually, manas has no choice but to stop leading and instead be led by consciousness.

To make manas have concentration (samādhi), consciousness should grasp fewer dharmas, discern fewer dharmas, think of fewer dharmas, or grasp no dharmas, discern no dharmas, think of no dharmas. In this way, manas receives no feedback from consciousness and realizes that continuing to dwell on dharmas is useless, so it ceases to stir thoughts. Thus, manas gradually becomes concentrated.

X. What Does it Mean That Manas Does Not Correspond to Language and Writing?

The meaning that manas does not correspond to language and writing is that manas cannot use language and writing to express its thoughts, concepts, and views. However, this does not mean manas does not understand language and writing. Since it is the sovereign consciousness that oversees everything, it has the right to direct and mobilize the six consciousnesses. Although it cannot speak or express itself in writing, it can make consciousness speak and use writing to express itself. Many things it cannot do can be accomplished with the assistance of the six consciousnesses. For example, a president has limited energy and cannot be in multiple places at once; he can only manage the overall situation of the country and cannot conduct market research, statistical analysis, and other specific tasks. But he can appoint subordinates to complete these tasks. Because manas needs to oversee everything, it cannot personally handle specific matters; it can only use sense-accompanied consciousness (pañcaviṣaya-samprayukta-manovijñāna) and independent consciousness (mano-vijñāna) to handle specific trivial matters. Manas only needs to listen to reports. During the process of listening to reports, it uses the mental factors (cetasika) of volition (cetanā), wisdom (prajñā), and decisive understanding (adhimokṣa) to make judgments and decisions, then issues commands for the six consciousnesses to solve problems according to the instructions.

Manas is like a mute person; although unable to speak, it can understand human speech. The eighth consciousness is also like this; although it cannot speak and is not connected to language and writing, it has a unique way of discerning, discerning unique information different from the seven consciousnesses; manas is also different from consciousness. The volition (cetanā) of manas is no worse than that of consciousness. If the president spares time and energy to specialize in market research, he might do it better than his subordinates; he just lacks the time and energy. If manas were to replace the six consciousnesses, it might surpass them; it's just that its current energy is insufficient. Therefore, one must cultivate concentration (samādhi), cultivate it again and again, to free up time and energy for manas, to focus, focus, and focus again. Only then can the great wisdom of manas emerge.

Treating manas as a consciousness or as a person allows one to understand the nature (svabhāva) and mental factors (caitasika) of manas. Consciousness and the five sense consciousnesses are there to do things for manas. If manas has sufficient wisdom, whatever the six consciousnesses do, manas can understand everything clearly. If manas lacks sufficient wisdom and decisive understanding (adhimokṣa), there might be misunderstandings, or it might not understand the actions of the six consciousnesses, unclear about what the six consciousnesses are doing. If consciousness cannot express itself or expresses unclearly, manas also cannot fully understand and is unclear about the thoughts of consciousness.

XI. Why Does Manas Not Correspond to Language, Writing, and Sound?

The operation of language, writing, and sound cannot be separated from the body faculty (kāyendriya) and body consciousness (kāya-vijñāna); they are produced by the combined operation of body consciousness and consciousness; they are the functional roles of sense-accompanied consciousness (pañcaviṣaya-samprayukta-manovijñāna). The appearance of language and sound first originates from manas generating the intention to express its thoughts and ideas. When manas stirs a thought, brain waves fluctuate, and the intention is transmitted by the central nervous system to the system or area corresponding to the body faculty. Then, wind or air flow arises in the dantian area. This air flow surges upward, reaching the tongue root, where sound flow appears, thus forming language and sound.

Therefore, speaking requires energy. If energy is insufficient, the sound is weak, or no sound can be produced. Language and sound are produced by the combined operation of consciousness and body consciousness, requiring the cooperation of the body faculty; the tongue, at this time, is part of the body faculty and does not function to contact taste objects (rasa). Regarding writing, handwriting and typing are produced by the combined operation of consciousness and body consciousness, requiring the cooperation of the body faculty. Independent consciousness can have inner voices; written images can also appear in the mind. When independent consciousness introspects, it can know its own inner voice and written images.

The above belong to the verbal and mental actions of the six consciousnesses, as well as bodily actions. Bodily actions can only be completed by the combined operation of consciousness and the five sense consciousnesses, requiring the cooperation of the five sense faculties. Without the five sense faculties, the operation of bodily actions cannot be completed. The creation of bodily, verbal, and mental actions by the six consciousnesses is prompted by manas; it is the function of the mental intention of manas. Manas is like a commander; the six consciousnesses are the executors of the commands. The commander moves its intention; brain waves transmit; after the command is issued, the entire nervous system operates.

The intention of manas is like a signal or code, which consciousness can partially or mostly understand. If wisdom is insufficient, it cannot understand everything. When the six consciousnesses execute the command and operate specifically, language, writing, and sound appear; this is the function of the operating system. The command system operates only in the form of codes and signals; it does not require the cooperation of the five sense faculties; the mental action of manas is then completed. Without the cooperation of the five sense faculties, of course, writing, language, and sound cannot appear.

When independent consciousness leaves the physical body, without the cooperation of the five sense faculties, similarly, there is no writing, language, or sound; it cannot speak or write. Mental thoughts are also like codes or signals, but consciousness understands them completely itself. After understanding, with the cooperation of the five sense faculties, it can express writing, language, and sound. If consciousness understands the mental thoughts of manas, it can similarly express them in writing, language, and sound. Therefore, writing, language, and sound are tools for expressing mental thoughts. Manas cannot express itself this way; it can only express through consciousness and the five sense consciousnesses, except when possessing spiritual powers.

The codes and signals of the eighth consciousness can only be understood when the sixth and seventh consciousnesses transform consciousness into wisdom (āśraya-parāvṛtti), possessing a considerable degree of the wisdom of discerning dharmas (dharma-pratisaṃvid). Before that, the sixth and seventh consciousnesses cannot decipher them, but they can enjoy the benefits bestowed by the eighth consciousness, enjoying them without knowing, thinking that the benefits were obtained through their own efforts, that they naturally deserve them. Codes require wisdom to decipher; without wisdom, one might spoil things by undue haste. Codes and signals are metaphors used to explain the form of mental thoughts; there are no actual codes or signals.