A Guide to the Cultivation and Realization of the Mind: Part Two

Chapter Eleven: Miscellaneous Discussions on Manas

I. How to Observe and Subdue the Parikalpita-Svabhāva of Manas

The parikalpita-svabhāva (universally imagined nature) of manas is its pervasive discrimination and attachment to all dharmas, ceaselessly clinging to all dharmas. Relying on the ālaya-vijñāna (storehouse consciousness), it grasps all dharmas manifested by the ālaya-vijñāna, remaining in a state of awareness moment after moment, unwilling to relinquish dharmas. It sticks tenaciously to all dharmas it contacts; past, present, and future dharmas linger incessantly in the mind. Thoughts are continuous, not a single dharma is left unthought, unstuck, or unclung to. This is the parikalpita-svabhāva of manas. Because manas possesses this characteristic, the mind becomes tangled like hemp and scattered like a monkey, with thoughts ceaselessly arising. Consequently, manas lacks concentration (dhyāna), cannot focus, expends immense time and energy on meaningless dharmas, and wisdom cannot increase.

If one can find a way to observe these thoughts of manas, one realizes what dharmas manas is clinging to and grasping, and then one can find a way to counteract and subdue the parikalpita-svabhāva of manas. This enables one to focus the mind and enhance the power of concentration (samādhi-bala) and wisdom (prajñā-bala). How does one observe the parikalpita-svabhāva and thoughts of manas? First, observe the states and mental thoughts that appear in dreams. Observe whether these states and thoughts are orderly or chaotic and unfocused. If one can observe the focal point indicated by the state and the thoughts of manas, one can know the content manas is attached to and concerned with, as well as the problems existing in the mind.

Second, immediately upon waking, observe what one's thoughts are and what the emotional state is. These thoughts belong to manas, not to consciousness (mano-vijñāna), because consciousness has just arisen and has not yet had time to generate any thoughts or emotions. Third, observe the coming and going mental thoughts in meditative concentration (samādhi). In samādhi, consciousness has already become pure and thoughtless, yet there are still some unsettled mental thoughts within, flickering, now clear now dim, now light now heavy, constantly arising, ceasing, ceasing and arising again. These mental thoughts all belong to manas. In all circumstances, the thoughts in the mind are scattered, unfocused, and mostly unimportant and meaningless. From this, one can understand and observe the parikalpita-svabhāva of manas. Due to this parikalpita-svabhāva, since beginningless kalpas, we have expended and wasted immense energy without obtaining the wholesome results we should have attained. Such pervasive grasping everywhere is truly a case of the gains not matching the losses.

How to curb and reduce the parikalpita-svabhāva of manas? One must refrain from contact with meaningless, useless people, affairs, and objects. Minimize contact with various sensory realms, shield oneself as much as possible from the rotten people, rotten affairs, and entangled relationships of the world. Know fewer dharmas if possible; know none if possible. Those people and affairs are meaningless, merely wasting time and energy, leaving impure thoughts in the mind. The mind must continuously focus on one meaningful dharma, concentrating on this dharma without wavering, without interruption, and without admixture. Taking this dharma as the main thread, over time with deep effort, mental distractions will lessen, the scattered mind can be subdued, the mind becomes settled, energy becomes concentrated and vigorous, and wisdom will increase.

II. The Cleverness of Manas

In the middle of the night while asleep, the six consciousnesses cease. The house catches fire, and manas wants to run. What can be done? Without the cooperation of the body faculty (kāyendriya) and the six consciousnesses, manas, no matter what, cannot realize this intention. Therefore, it is not that manas has very low wisdom and can do nothing; rather, whatever it wants to do requires tools. Without tools, it has no way, just like a low-functioning individual.

When manas encounters such an urgent, critical matter, it is certainly anxious to wake up, so that consciousness can perceive the fire situation, and then run away together with the five sense consciousnesses. As soon as manas becomes anxious, the isolated consciousness (mano-vijñāna without sensory support) arises first. The isolated consciousness perceives unclearly, so it transitions into sense-accompanied consciousness (mano-vijñāna), and the five sense consciousnesses also arise accordingly. Thus, one wakes up. As soon as consciousness perceives the urgency of the situation, it decides to run. After manas agrees, it takes charge and makes the five aggregates body (pañca-skandha) run, and the physical body runs out the door.

Upon waking, consciousness and the nose consciousness arise together because the smell of smoke is strong, so the nose consciousness arises before the other consciousnesses. Then the eye consciousness, body consciousness, ear consciousness, and tongue consciousness appear. The arising of the five sense consciousnesses has a sequence; whichever sense object (viṣaya) is more prominent, the corresponding consciousness arises first. If the firelight is bright, the eye consciousness arises first; if the room is too hot, the body consciousness arises first; if the sound of fire or shouting is loud, the ear consciousness arises first.

In critical moments, bodily movements are extremely fast; consciousness has no time to think anything, yet one quickly avoids danger. If, in a critical moment, one waits for consciousness to perceive and think things through, the person would probably meet with disaster. At this time, the function of consciousness is to act swiftly together with the five sense consciousnesses, following the arrangement of manas. Manas is very clever in critical moments.

III. Does Manas Operate Inside the Brain or in the Void Outside the Brain?

If manas were outside the brain, it would have no relation to oneself. If manas could be in the void, whose manas would it be? Who would execute the results of its deliberation? How could the contact between sense faculty and sense object (sparśa) produce the six consciousnesses to provide feedback to manas's deliberation? Therefore, it is said that manas cannot be in the void outside the brain. What is the place outside the brain? Must it be void? The Śūraṅgama Sūtra states: "The void is born within your mind, like a speck of cloud dotting the great clear sky." This mind, of course, refers to the Tathāgatagarbha (Buddha-nature). But must manas also perceive the void along with the Tathāgatagarbha? Then, is the void inside or outside manas? Or is manas inside or outside the void? Manas silently contains and perceives all dharmas; it is not confined within the physical body. The dharmas of the ten directions and three times can all be perceived by manas along with the Tathāgatagarbha. From this, we can see: How vast is our mind? It encompasses the great void.

Manas is also a consciousness-mind (vijñāna). The consciousness-mind operates not inside, outside, or in the middle of the physical body, because the consciousness-mind is formless and without characteristics; one cannot say the consciousness-mind is inside or outside the physical body. Yet this consciousness-mind of manas can govern all dharmas inside and outside the physical body, operating together with the Tathāgatagarbha. Wherever the Tathāgatagarbha is present, manas must follow. The Tathāgatagarbha cannot operate any dharma alone, except for the essential realm (svabhāva-viṣaya). Where manas is absent, there is no life phenomenon. If manas were absent from the brain, not only would the brain cease to function, the entire physical body would cease to function, and life would cease to exist. The dharmas contacted by the five aggregates body (pañca-skandha) are all operated by the Tathāgatagarbha, with manas always accompanying it; manas, relying on the Tathāgatagarbha, can perceive them all. Even the dharmas not contacted by the five aggregates body are also operated by the Tathāgatagarbha, with manas accompanying them; manas can equally perceive these dharmas.

For example, if someone recites the Buddha's name and attains samādhi, truly wishing to be reborn in the Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss, then a lotus flower for that person will appear in the lotus pond of the Pure Land. This lotus flower is not solely manifested by his Tathāgatagarbha; rather, it is created by the Tathāgatagarbha following the manas that vows for rebirth, within the lotus pond of the Pure Land. So, does manas operate inside the brain or outside the brain? At this time, manas is simultaneously not separate from the brain and physical body, yet also present in the Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss. If one says manas can only operate inside the brain, then how to explain the lotus in the Pure Land? Whom does it belong to? The mind-made bodies (manomaya-kāya) of great bodhisattvas are all governed by a single manas. Are the manas of each manifestation body inside or outside the physical body?

Another example: When the eye consciousness sees ten people in front, on whose form does the eye consciousness actually make contact? Since ten people are seen simultaneously, the eye consciousness contacts the forms of all ten people at the same time; it is not said that it can only contact one person and not others simultaneously. Manas is likewise; relying on the Tathāgatagarbha, it can contact all dharmas upheld by the Tathāgatagarbha simultaneously, without distinction between inside, outside, or in between. There are identical dharmas inside and outside the subtle sense faculties (indriya); inside and outside the brain, there are identical dharmas; manas can perceive them all and deliberate on them all. But the actual situation is that sentient beings possessing subtle sense faculties, no matter where they go, cannot escape their subtle sense faculties. Even if they run to the edge of heaven, they still do not go beyond their subtle sense faculties. The constant examination and deliberation (saṃtāna) of manas is upon all dharmas; it deliberates not only on dharmas within the subtle sense faculties but also on dharmas outside the subtle sense faculties. Manas not only clings to the body but also clings to dharmas. It is this clinging that is most troublesome. The clinging to the mundane world of the three realms (traidhātuka) is something we currently have no way to detach from; all thinking is confined due to limited insight.

IV. What is the State When the Five Aggregates Subject to Grasping Are Exhausted?

For the seven consciousnesses of sentient beings, the five aggregates subject to grasping (pañcopādāna-skandha) are five kinds of obscurations. They obstruct the vast meritorious functions of the seven consciousnesses, hinder their supernatural powers and wondrous functions, confine the knowledge and actions of the seven consciousnesses to a small scope, preventing them from exceeding it. Simultaneously, they also obstruct the meritorious functions of the eighth consciousness (ālaya-vijñāna), preventing the Mirror-like Wisdom (ādarśa-jñāna) from manifesting. Only by cultivating the four dhyānas and eight samāpattis (four meditations and eight concentrations), attaining dhyāna at the fourth level or above, can one gradually break through the limitations and hindrances of the five aggregates subject to grasping, escape the cage of the five aggregates, like a bird freed from a cage, gaining freedom to soar in the vast heavens and earth.

To extinguish and eradicate the five aggregates subject to grasping, one needs samādhi at the fourth dhyāna level or above. The fourth dhyāna is the concentration of abandoning thought and attaining purity (upekṣā-smṛti-pariśuddhi). When the mind has no thoughts, there are no obstacles whatsoever, and one can initiate any supernatural powers and functions, eliminating obscurations on body and mind, free from any hindrance. The aggregate of form (rūpa-skandha) is the physical body and all form dharmas, also the objects of the six sense fields (ṣaḍ-āyatana). It has an obscuring and hindering effect on the seven consciousnesses, especially on the six consciousnesses. When manas wants to use the six consciousnesses to do something, they become incapable. That is why it is said that the five aggregates subject to grasping also obscure the seventh consciousness (manas).

When the aggregate of form is exhausted, the physical body and the form dharmas of the sensory realm no longer obscure the mind of the six consciousnesses. What does this signify? What is the obscuration of the form aggregate on the mind of the six consciousnesses? Influenced by the physical body and material form dharmas, the eye consciousness wishes to see distant places but cannot, wishes to see the heavens above and the earth below but cannot, wishes to see other celestial bodies but cannot, and other Buddha lands are even more invisible – seeing form is confined by distance and space. The eye consciousness wishes to see beyond high walls, beyond high mountains, within deep water, and within the earth, but cannot see, obstructed by material form dharmas. The eye consciousness wishes to see form in pitch darkness without light but cannot see – seeing form is confined to light.

Similarly, the ear consciousness wishes to hear distant sounds but cannot; if separated by dense matter, it cannot hear the sound; sounds beyond a certain range cannot be heard – hearing sound is obstructed by spatial distance and form dharmas. The nose consciousness cannot smell distant fragrances; fragrances wrapped in dense matter also cannot be smelled. The tongue consciousness cannot taste flavors not in contact with the tongue faculty. The body consciousness cannot feel tactile objects not in contact with the body faculty. The mental consciousness (mano-vijñāna) does not know people and things from past and future lives, meaning it lacks the supernatural power of knowing past lives (pūrva-nivāsa-jñāna).

If one cultivates to the level of the fourth dhyāna, the aggregate of form can be eradicated. Seeing form, hearing sound, and feeling touch will no longer be obstructed by the form aggregate. Then the divine eye (divya-cakṣus), divine ear (divya-śrotra), divine nose, and divine tongue powers will appear. The supernatural power of bodily transformation (ṛddhi) will also appear. The mental powers of knowing others' minds (para-citta-jñāna) and knowing past lives (pūrva-nivāsa-jñāna) will also appear. This is what is called the freedom of the five supernatural powers (pañcābhijñā). Non-Buddhist practitioners cultivating the four dhyānas and eight samāpattis also attain these five powers. There is one more, the power of the extinction of outflows (āsrava-kṣaya-jñāna), which non-Buddhists cannot attain, because that is the wisdom power of completely severing afflictions (kleśa). Non-Buddhists have not severed the view of self (satkāya-dṛṣṭi), so self-attachment (ātma-grāha) cannot be completely severed, and they cannot possess the power of the extinction of outflows. After the form aggregate is exhausted, one must gradually eradicate the aggregates subject to grasping of feeling (vedanā), perception (saṃjñā), mental formations (saṃskāra), and the domain of consciousness (vijñāna). What one sees becomes vast and unobstructed, without limitations.

Only after the domain of the aggregate subject to grasping of feeling is completely eradicated can one be free from the limitations and control of bodily sensations. No matter what happens to the physical body, the mind remains unaffected. Burning, cutting, or drowning cannot harm this physical body. Facing any realm, the mind remains unmoving like thusness (tathatā). When the domain of the feeling aggregate has not been eradicated, the tactile sensations of the physical body will affect the fluctuations of the mind of the six consciousnesses.

These supernatural powers are all initiated by manas. Originally, manas also wanted to perceive vast realms, but forced by the obscuration of the six consciousnesses by the five aggregates subject to grasping, manas was helpless. Now that the obscurations are cleared, manas's wishes can be realized without obstruction. This requires very great merit (puṇya) as support, as well as the support of precepts (śīla) and the power of meditative concentration (dhyāna-bala). If any one of these three conditions is lacking, one cannot initiate any supernatural power.

V. The Decisive Role of Manas

The eye faculty (cakṣur-indriya) contacts form objects (rūpa-viṣaya). This is divided into the external eye faculty contacting external form objects and the internal eye faculty contacting internal form objects. Only when the internal eye faculty contacts internal form objects can the eye consciousness arise to perceive form objects. But the eye faculty is a material form dharma, not mind. How can it actively contact form objects? For example, in front are trees, stones, grass, and flowers. How does the eye faculty selectively contact only the flowers, so that the eye consciousness only perceives the flowers and not other objects? How long does the eye faculty take to contact the form object? How long does the eye consciousness take to perceive the flowers? What determines this?

All of this is determined by manas. Manas is the master of the five aggregates body, the decider. Of course, manas is a false master, merely like a fox borrowing the tiger's terror, unknowingly relying on the true master, the eighth consciousness, behind it. When this false master, manas, faces numerous internal form objects, it alone chooses the flowers because the inner mind delights in the flowers. Currently, there are no other matters to attend to, so it only wants to appreciate the flowers. If there were important matters, it would have no time for the flowers.

Manas wants to look at the flowers. The form object of these flowers originally falls upon the internal eye faculty. As soon as manas decides, the eye consciousness arises. Thus, the eye faculty, form object, and eye consciousness, these three, combine in contact (sparśa), and the eye consciousness recognizes the form object of the flowers. How long the eye consciousness perceives is determined by manas. When manas has appreciated enough and no longer wants to look at the flowers, the eye consciousness ceases on the flowers and arises elsewhere. In this process, seeds (bīja) fall and are stored in the eighth consciousness, which will produce future existence (bhava). Within this, the greed and attachment of manas and the greed and attachment of consciousness are all truthfully recorded by the eighth consciousness, becoming seeds. The eye consciousness also has slight greed and attachment; it only has greed and attachment by following manas and consciousness. The eye consciousness fundamentally cannot decide anything; it is completely involuntary.

If we wish to be liberated from the suffering of the world, we should not let our actions leave seeds, especially seeds of greed, hatred, and delusion. Then what should we do? We must control the mental thoughts of manas, not have afflictions of greed, hatred, and delusion, not let the six consciousnesses create unwholesome bodily, verbal, and mental karmas, or at least create fewer bodily, verbal, and mental karmas. Moreover, when creating them, do not give rise to afflictions of greed, hatred, and delusion; if seeds must be left, leave pure karmic seeds.

Who decides to create fewer karmic actions? Manas decides. The source of karmic actions lies with manas. The conditionality of actions arising from the ignorance (avidyā) of manas means that manas, due to various reasons, various mental activities, and various ignorances, wishes to create, so karmic actions appear, karmic seeds are retained, and future suffering arises. Thus, the source of the suffering of birth and death is found. How one should act in the world henceforth should be clear. Reduce contact, reduce the time of contact. If contact is unavoidable, during contact, reduce or eliminate mental formations, keep the mind as empty as possible, not leaving behind seeds of afflictions. Gradually train oneself like this, and liberation has hope.

VI. The Sequence of Severing the View of Self and Chan Investigation

Whether one should first sever the view of self (satkāya-dṛṣṭi) and then investigate Chan, or directly investigate Chan to seek realization, there is no fixed conclusion. It depends on the individual's capacity (indriya). The Dharma has no fixed Dharma; it varies according to the person. For most people, one should first seek to sever the view of self. Once the false self of the five aggregates is clearly understood, during subsequent Chan investigation, one will not confuse the false with the true, taking the false as true. For those with superior capacity, whose view of self and afflictions are relatively slight, and whose meditative concentration is very good, not falling into the thinking of consciousness, they can directly investigate Chan. In the process of Chan investigation, they first sever the view of self and then realize the truth.

This is because investigating Chan is precisely investigating and realizing within the five aggregates body; it cannot depart from the five aggregates and the eighteen elements (dhātus). In the process of investigation, one can also clearly discern, one by one, the impermanent and unreal nature of the five aggregates body, thereby severing the view of self. Ancient Chan masters realized the Way in this manner. However, it is not guaranteed that there were no cases of intellectual understanding (解悟). Among the 1700 kōans of the Chan school, not all are cases of realization (證悟). If the power of concentration is slightly weaker, the meritorious function of consciousness will be stronger than that of manas, leading to intellectual understanding. At the time of intellectual understanding, one sees the true mind vaguely, only a rough shadow. The wisdom of contemplative observation (觀行智慧) cannot arise, afflictions cannot be reduced, and the view of self cannot be severed. This, instead, hinders the path. Haste makes waste; it achieves the opposite effect.

The power of meditative concentration among modern people is generally much weaker than in ancient times. The thinking of the conscious mind is not easily subdued, so the function of manas becomes weak, and realization becomes very difficult. Severing the view of self is also very difficult. While theoretical understanding is abundant, intellectual understanding is easy, but realization is instead harder. Therefore, we should all first contemplate the selflessness of the five aggregates, and afterward investigate Chan. This is relatively safer.

VII. The Function of Mind Power

Why can a person with deep meditative concentration cure a patient's illness using the power of thought? Is it the result of direct interaction between the eighth consciousnesses? Mind power primarily involves the power of manas's thought, and secondarily, the power of consciousness's thought. If the thought power of manas is strong, the mind power is great, and the will is firm. The eighth consciousness will cooperate, complying with the thought power of manas, realizing what manas thinks, contemplates, and wishes. For the thought power of manas to be strong, one must have very deep meditative concentration, ensuring that the directing power (manasikāra) of manas is entirely concentrated on one point. Only then is the force strong enough to prompt the eighth consciousness to comply with its mind and realize its wish.

If mind power is strong, thinking of killing can also kill a person. Mental killing involves volition and karmic action, so it is the same as bodily killing, belonging to the karmic offense of killing, bearing evil retribution. Thinking of saving someone can also revive a person; it involves volition and karmic action, belonging to wholesome karma, bearing wholesome retribution. Thinking of changing someone can also change a person; it bears karmic retribution. Therefore, one must never intentionally provoke a person with very powerful mind power; try to comply with them. If one angers such a person, as soon as the other party forms an intention, without even moving their eyeballs, you will suffer misfortune, without even knowing why. A person with very powerful mind power can match ten thousand or a hundred thousand, equivalent to the strength of an army, capable of changing the opponent's fortune. Powerful mind power arises, first, due to merit (puṇya); second, due to the power of meditative concentration (dhyāna-bala); third, due to the power of wisdom (prajñā-bala). Cultivation means relying primarily on oneself, with Buddhas and Bodhisattvas as support. Believe in your own power, gradually reduce dependence, and you will gradually become strong.

VIII. How to Depart from Suffering

In the process of cultivation, little by little, eradicate the ignorance of manas, eradicate afflictions, eradicate self-attachment. When manas has no attachment to the three realms, the dharmas of the three realms will cease. Finally, manas must cease, entering the state of remainderless nirvana (nirupadhiśeṣa-nirvāṇa), tranquil and cool. Ignorance is the root cause, the primary cause, of the cycle of birth and death. If ignorance is not eradicated, the activities (saṃskāra) of manas do not cease, greed for the three realms does not cease, and the suffering of birth and death does not cease. However, sentient beings are accustomed to the suffering of birth and death; like living long in a cesspool without noticing the stench, they do not feel birth and death are great suffering, are not aware of the great suffering within birth and death, and cling incessantly to birth and death. When sentient beings do not wish to awaken, even the Buddha cannot save them.

IX. Which Karma is Greater: Karma Created Intentionally or Unintentionally?

"Intentionally" means with preparation, target, and purpose; it is deliberate. "Unintentionally" means without preparation, target, or purpose; it is inadvertent. When creating karma intentionally, the mind is not empty. When creating wholesome karma, the karma is small and the merit is small. When performing wholesome actions unintentionally, the mind is empty, so the karma is large and the merit is large. When creating unwholesome karma intentionally, the mind is evil, so the karma is large and the offense is large. When creating unwholesome karma unintentionally, the mind is not evil, so the karma is small and the offense is small. Intentional or unintentional must be understood and observed from the perspective of purpose and mental activity. Whether there is a purpose, and what kind of purpose, is also key. When sentient beings perform wholesome deeds intentionally and with a purpose, the goodness is small. Performing wholesome deeds without a purpose results in great goodness. Committing unwholesome deeds unintentionally results in small evil; committing unwholesome deeds intentionally and deliberately results in great evil.

Karma created from the depths of the heart means manas wishes to create wholesome or unwholesome karma; both wholesome and unwholesome karmas are large because the fundamental mind that decides is of a wholesome or unwholesome nature. When sentient beings perform wholesome deeds unintentionally, it means there was originally no thought of performing a wholesome deed; the mind is not wholesome, but by coincidence, a wholesome deed was performed. The merit is then small. This is not the same principle, nor the same level, as the Buddha's unintentional action. Performing wholesome deeds without considering the result is also considered unintentional; the merit is then great. Due to the great power of wholesome dharmas, they can temporarily prevent the conditions for unwholesome karmas from ripening; great unwholesome karmas are forever prevented from ripening. This is the power of great vows. Without this power, at the end of life, one will inevitably follow the force of unwholesome karmas, which is the case for most people. The Tathāgatagarbha is unintentional toward any person or thing at any time; it has neither merit nor offense, yet its merit and virtue are the greatest. The Buddha does all things unintentionally; his merit is immeasurably great.