Chapter 2: The Relationship Between Manas and Mind-Consciousness (2)

12. The Source of Mind-Consciousness Defilements

Manas is the co-existent reliance (sahabhū-hetu) for the birth of mind-consciousness and the basis upon which the mind-ground of mind-consciousness becomes defiled or purified. Mind-consciousness is produced only after manas comes into contact with mental objects (dharmadhātu) and makes a decision and volition. Where do the defilements of mind-consciousness come from? One source is the regulation and permeation by manas; another source is permeation from the surrounding defiled environment.

How does manas regulate and permeate mind-consciousness? When manas contacts the objects of the six dusts (ṣaḍ viṣaya), it can generally discern that the dust-object is unsatisfactory. Manas first gives rise to defilements within and intends to counteract the dust-object. Consequently, mind-consciousness is born. Following the instructions of manas, mind-consciousness discriminates the current mental object. When taking physical or verbal actions, it carries defilements, causing the body and speech to be defiled. This is the result of mind-consciousness being regulated by manas. The meaning of permeation is that whenever the defilements of manas arise, they permeate mind-consciousness. Gradually influenced by this permeation, mind-consciousness develops the same defilements as manas. For example, when an infant is first born, mind-consciousness has no defilements. Over time, the innate defilements of manas influence the mental activities of mind-consciousness, causing mind-consciousness to increasingly align with the defilements of manas; this is being permeated by manas. Only when mind-consciousness has moments of awakening can it reduce some defilements and, in turn, control the defilements of manas.

The second source of mind-consciousness defilements is the permeation from dust-objects. Constantly dwelling among people with various defilements and undergoing continuous permeation day after day, defilements arise in the mind. The defilements of mind-consciousness then permeate manas in return, causing manas to also possess the same defilements. After manas has severed defilements, it is not easily permeated. Even if defilements occasionally arise, they are temporary defilements of mind-consciousness and will dissipate afterward, not persisting for long.

13. How Mind-Consciousness Recalls Past Events

Sometimes, after waking up in the morning for a short while, one still doesn't know where one is sleeping; after one or two minutes, one still doesn't realize one is in one's own home. This is a fragmentation of mind-consciousness. A major fragmentation of mind-consciousness occurs after the birth of a new five aggregates (pañca-skandha), leaving one utterly ignorant and forgetting everything from past lives. Without spiritual powers (abhijñā), one forgets for an entire lifetime. A minor fragmentation occurs after waking from unconsciousness, after sobering up from drunkenness, after waking from sleep, or at the moment the intermediate state body (antarābhava) arises after death. As long as mind-consciousness does not arise continuously, fragmentation phenomena occur.

What does mind-consciousness rely on to connect with the past? It relies on the co-existent reliance, manas, and of course, the eighth consciousness (ālaya-vijñāna), but we won't discuss that for now. When mind-consciousness first appears, it strives to recall the past. All thoughts are given to it by manas. In a state of haziness, it can only discriminate the immediate environment and does not know anything that happened before becoming clear-headed. Manas prompts mind-consciousness to think and recall; mind-consciousness then recollects. The content recollected is also the dharmas (phenomena) that manas accesses; mind-consciousness continuously discriminates and judges them, and then recollection emerges. In reality, the dharmas recalled by mind-consciousness are all presented by the Tathāgatagarbha (Buddha-nature).

14. The Function of Manas Dharma Principles

The Dharma principles concerning the severance of the view of self (satkāya-dṛṣṭi) and the principles of manas in Buddhism are of immense benefit to both Buddhism and humanity. Psychologists and sociologists can gain great insights from them. Understanding the principles of manas, or the subconscious, they can introspect, observe their own psychological phenomena, thereby understanding themselves, treating themselves correctly, and even changing themselves, even if they do not yet understand the Buddha Dharma. Sales personnel in enterprises also benefit, as they can know themselves and others, thus controlling the other party's psychology and guiding them along favorable trends, leading to successful sales. All walks of life benefit from psychology, that is, the Dharma principles of the subconscious manas. What success studies call "talking to oneself" is precisely mind-consciousness permeating and guiding manas to subdue the self.

All psychological problems are issues of manas and mind-consciousness. Schizophrenia is also a problem of manas and mind-consciousness. When one talks to oneself and the two selves cannot reach an agreement, a split occurs. The fundamental problem of schizophrenia is the lack of unity in thoughts and views between manas and mind-consciousness, and inconsistency in values. Mind-consciousness cannot persuade manas to adapt to society. Sometimes, mind-consciousness doesn't even understand the problem, making it even less capable of effectively persuading and guiding manas. If one is utterly incompatible with society, entering a misunderstanding or dead end from which one cannot emerge, and one's thoughts and views become bound and cannot be opened, the spirit splits. If one can clearly understand the problems of the five aggregates and manas/mind-consciousness, and realize that all dharmas are empty (śūnyatā), then no one would suffer from mental or psychological illnesses.

15. A Vijñaptimātratā (Consciousness-Only) Analysis of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Obsessive-compulsive disorder is a symptom manifested by the conflict between the sixth and seventh consciousnesses. A person's manas is very stubborn and wants to do a certain thing, but mind-consciousness is very rational and unwilling to do it, believing it is not good. However, mind-consciousness does not understand why manas wants to do this and thus cannot effectively persuade or advise manas; it can only forcefully refuse to implement or act.

Why does manas have such thoughts, wanting to do such unreasonable things? The most reasonable explanation is karmic hindrances (karmāvaraṇa), sometimes also called habitual tendencies. Manas follows karma, controlled and manipulated by karmic forces. Mind-consciousness understands principles, is rational, and knows this idea is very bad, so it controls and opposes manas's decision, refusing to execute manas's decision and command. Thus, the two engage in intense conflict, and obsessive-compulsive disorder appears. For example, a child might have harmed its mother in a past life. Due to karmic conditions (hetu-pratyaya) meeting in this life, the mother will retaliate against the child. However, mind-consciousness has no such idea and is unwilling to follow the karma, so it will prevent manas's retaliatory actions. The conflict between karma and reason, the struggle between the emotion of loving the child and the emotion of hating the child, the interweaving of love and hate, causes conflict, extreme inner turmoil, and great suffering. This is due to the pressure of past karmic conditions.

Who ultimately gains the upper hand depends on who is stronger: the rationality of mind-consciousness or the karmic force of manas. To make mind-consciousness strong and gain the upper hand, one must increase the wisdom of persuasion and advice, thoroughly understand the principles, think clearly, be reasonable and evidence-based, patient, methodical, and skillful, thus gradually guiding manas to abandon the original idea. Mind-consciousness must carefully and patiently understand why manas has such thoughts. It should advise manas to have a broad and magnanimous mind, to properly maintain the mother-child relationship, to consider more the infinite benefits and joy the child will bring in the future, to contemplate the child's suffering, to realize that treating the child well is treating oneself well, and to reflect on the hardship and difficulty of pregnancy.

From the relationship between mind-consciousness and manas, we find that both have their own different assertions. Why can their thoughts and views be inconsistent? If they could be completely consistent, would it be good? There is forcing: mind-consciousness forcing manas, and manas forcing mind-consciousness. Who usually forces whom in obsessive-compulsive disorder? It is always manas forcing mind-consciousness, and mind-consciousness refusing to comply. If both can together break ignorance (avidyā) until it is completely exhausted, ultimately transforming consciousness into wisdom (jñāna), then the sixth and seventh consciousnesses become completely unified, coordinated, perfectly synchronized, and their power of action becomes strong. Action is the physical, verbal, and mental actions of the six consciousnesses. The power of action comes partly from the strength of mind-consciousness and partly from the strength of manas. The strength of mind-consciousness can be transmitted to manas; the strength of manas can empower mind-consciousness. When the two are harmonized and united, the power of action is greatest.

16. What Information About Past Lives Can Manas Convey?

For example, when Venerable Hanshan saw the relics of Su Dongpo, he felt particularly intimate and familiar. This is information conveyed by manas; mind-consciousness discriminated it and generated a feeling of intimacy. This discrimination is vague and cannot determine anything specific, but the feeling is very strong; it is the feeling brought to mind-consciousness by manas. If mind-consciousness has the wisdom to further discern the thoughts of manas, it can know more, more detailed, and more accurate information, going beyond just a feeling of familiarity and intimacy. Then, manas might satisfy its own thoughts and have further ideas and actions.

For example, if Yi always speaks ill of Jia behind his back, Jia's mind-consciousness does not know, but manas perceives it. Then, when Jia meets Yi, manas definitely conveys information, and mind-consciousness will inexplicably feel uncomfortable and dislike Yi. However, mind-consciousness cannot figure out exactly why it dislikes Yi; manas understands but cannot express it. If mind-consciousness has wisdom, it will know why, know that Yi always speaks ill of it, and might plan to take some retaliatory action. Once manas also agrees to retaliate, then there will be drama between Jia and Yi. Therefore, do not gossip about or evaluate others behind their backs, and certainly do not scheme against them secretly, because no secret can be completely hidden ("no wall is windproof"). Forming evil karmic connections with others will inevitably result in retribution sooner or later; no one is outside cause and effect, and nothing fails to bear consequences.

Manas can also convey all defilements like greed, hatred, and delusion to mind-consciousness. For example, greed for property: upon seeing property, one wants to take it for oneself. Mind-consciousness might feel embarrassed or afraid to act, but manas encourages and decides from behind, so mind-consciousness cautiously, stealthily, and secretly finds a way to take the property. If manas is upright, it can also convey an upright mental state to mind-consciousness. If manas is resolute, it can make mind-consciousness strong. If manas has wisdom, it can make the actions of mind-consciousness accord with principle and Dharma, enabling it to encounter defiled states without being permeated.

17. The Principle of Silent Recitation

Manas is the master consciousness. Physical, verbal, and mental actions are all regulated and directed by manas. Silent recitation of mantras or scriptures in the mind is the same: when manas wants to recite silently, mind-consciousness recites silently in the mind without making a sound. Reciting aloud is also done by mind-consciousness; it is because manas wants to recite that mind-consciousness recites. It is also possible that mind-consciousness wants to recite, and manas agrees, then mind-consciousness can recite. In short, the act of reciting is decided by manas and performed by mind-consciousness.

Why does manas choose whether to recite aloud or silently? This decision is very subtle and hard to observe. Mind-consciousness always feels this is automatic, happening naturally. This feeling indicates that mind-consciousness is very coarse and lacks meditative concentration (dhyāna), unable to observe the subtle and hidden aspects. Manas chooses whether to recite aloud or silently based on the state of body and mind, specifically based on whether the body's internal energy (qi) is sufficient. When in meditative concentration, moving the mind feels tiring; reciting aloud consumes more energy, and mind-consciousness feels tired, so manas automatically chooses not to make sound. When having meditative concentration and physical fatigue, it also chooses to recite silently in the mind. Superficially, it seems automatic, but actually, it is because manas, relying on the eighth consciousness, very quickly and closely knows the state of body and mind and can make decisions very rapidly that are beneficial to the body and mind. Many people's mind-consciousness is unaware of these things.

Silent recitation can increase meditative concentration. Alternatively, after meditative concentration increases, reciting aloud becomes difficult; reciting aloud feels mentally tiring, so one automatically switches to silent recitation. After meditative concentration increases further, even silent recitation becomes tiring, so one changes to vajra recitation (vajra-holding recitation), only forming the mouth shape without making a sound, and the inner voice becomes faint. When vajra recitation also feels forced, one changes to mental recollection (smṛti). When meditative concentration increases further, even recollection becomes impossible, and one enters deep concentration (samādhi) without any thoughts or mental activities.

18. Are Karmic Hindrances Eliminated by Mind-Consciousness or by Manas?

Karmic hindrances (karmāvaraṇa) are obstacles caused by ignorance (avidyā), the obstacles to one's own mind resulting from evil karma created by the power of ignorance, hindering the mind from receiving good retribution, good results, or creating good karma, preventing wholesome dharmas from forming, and further hindering the wisdom-knowledge of all dharmas. Ignorance is initially in manas; its root lies in the ignorance of manas. The ignorance of mind-consciousness initially comes entirely from manas; due to being influenced and driven by the ignorance of manas, mind-consciousness also becomes permeated by the environment. When the ignorance of manas is eliminated, mind-consciousness is no longer permeated by the environment, and there is no longer the permeation of manas's ignorance; thus, mind-consciousness becomes pure. The ultimate purity of mind-consciousness is the result of the purity of manas. If manas is not pure, it will inevitably drive and cause mind-consciousness to perform impure actions. Once defiled karmic seeds are formed, they become karmic hindrances in future lives. Therefore, all karmic hindrances are eliminated after manas becomes pure, because manas is the instigator; to untie the bell, the one who tied it must be sought (解铃还须系铃人).

When the merit (puṇya) of manas increases, meditative concentration strengthens, wisdom expands, and ignorance is partially eliminated, the nature of the mind will partially transform, and innate afflictions (kleśa) will be partially eliminated. The obscurations hindering wholesome dharmas, wholesome karma, wholesome results, wholesome retribution, and wholesome conditions are partially removed. The obscurations in learning Buddhism are already partially alleviated. The extent to which the ignorance of manas is eliminated determines how much the mind becomes pure, how much karmic hindrances decrease, and how much wholesome karma increases.

When attaining the fruit of severing the view of self (srota-āpanna) and realizing the nature of mind (明心见性), meditative concentration and wisdom greatly increase, and the nature of the mind simultaneously undergoes a fundamental transformation. The mind becomes pure, attaining the purity of the Dharma-eye (dharmacakṣu), and innate afflictions are partially eliminated. Consequently, the karma leading to the three evil destinies (apāya) is eliminated, indicating that one no longer needs to suffer retribution in the three evil destinies; the remaining karma will be experienced within the human realm. Each time sentient beings attain a certain samādhi, they eliminate a portion of karmic hindrances. This includes the second, third, and fourth fruits (phala) of the Śrāvaka path, various crucial stages of the Mahāyāna path, and entry into the bodhisattva grounds (bhūmi), from the first to the third ground. As wisdom increases, thoughts and views change, the mind changes, innate afflictions are eliminated, and corresponding karma is eliminated. Repentance (kṣamā) can also eliminate karmic hindrances from past lives because the inner manas recognizes its own ignorance, delusion, and afflictions, resolves to correct them, and the mind changes. Consequently, the corresponding karmic hindrances are eliminated, or partially eliminated.

Karma is divided into fixed karma (niyata-karma) and unfixed karma (aniyata-karma). Fixed karma cannot be changed; it must be experienced to be exhausted. However, unfixed karma can be changed; it does not necessarily have to be experienced to be exhausted, or it can be partially eliminated through repentance, with the rest being experienced. Even fixed karma can be changed under special circumstances. Special circumstances refer to when a sentient being's mental power is strong, wisdom is great, meditative power is strong, repentance is earnest and profound, and the nature of the mind is greatly transformed; then the karma can be changed. If all karma were unchangeable and had to be experienced to be exhausted, then no one in the world could become a Buddha, because sentient beings' karma is too much and too heavy, impossible to experience and exhaust completely. Also, if karma could not be changed, sentient beings' repentance would be useless; it could not eliminate karma.

19. The Relationship Between Manas and the Five Consciousnesses and the Internal and External Five Dusts

First, the arising and functioning of the five consciousnesses come from manas. If manas does not make mental engagement (manasikāra) and decisions, the five consciousnesses do not appear. After manas makes mental engagement and decisions, the five consciousnesses and mind-consciousness arise simultaneously to discriminate the six dusts where manas mentally engages and contacts. Therefore, the appearance of the five consciousnesses is not determined by mind-consciousness but by manas. Mind-consciousness is only one of the necessary conditions for the birth of the five consciousnesses; the two must combine to jointly discriminate the complete dust-object. Their order of appearance is almost simultaneous; the birth and functioning of the five consciousnesses are not determined by mind-consciousness.

Since manas can determine the birth of the five consciousnesses, why can manas dominate them? We know that the birth of the five consciousnesses is necessarily facilitated by the contact between the five sense faculties (pañcendriya) and the five dusts (pañca-viṣaya). The contact between the five sense faculties and the five dusts is a result facilitated by manas. The five sense faculties and the five dusts are material forms (rūpa), not consciousnesses; they do not actively contact each other and then decide to produce the five consciousnesses. It is manas that causes the five sense faculties to contact the five dusts and produce the five consciousnesses.

Why can manas cause the five sense faculties to contact the five dusts? Because manas grasps at (ālambana) the six dusts, wanting to discriminate them carefully. Manas does not grasp only mental objects (dharmadhātu) and contact mental objects; it grasps the entire dust-object, comprehensively including the five dusts. If it only grasped mental objects and not the five dusts, the information about the dust-object would be incomplete, making it impossible to make decisions and choices, and the six consciousnesses would not arise. For example, facing colorful flowers, the mental objects and the five dusts combined form the complete appearance of the flowers. If manas does not grasp the five dusts, it does not know the color of the flowers. How then would it decide to contact red flowers or blue or purple flowers? How to choose flowers? The reason the six consciousnesses discriminately grasp dust-objects is because of manas's choice regarding the dust-object, which necessarily includes the five dust-objects. The five dusts constitute a significant and important part of the six dusts, and they appear first, easily recognizable. Therefore, manas does not grasp the six dusts separately and then make decisions.

For example, when manas grasps the appearance of a person, it does not grasp only the mental object aspect of the person while excluding the skin color and clothing color aspect. On the contrary, initially, it is the color that is most prominent and attractive, followed by the finer mental object aspects. The same applies to other dust-objects. Therefore, manas grasps the five dusts. Manas can certainly grasp and make decisions regarding the five dust-objects even before they enter the subtle sense faculty (indriya). For example, before a car accident occurs, manas grasps the oncoming car, knows an imminent collision, and urgently decides to avoid it. If manas only grasped the mental object of the car and not the five dust-object aspect of the car, how could it know there is an oncoming car about to collide? How could it decide to avoid the oncoming car? Before a huge explosion occurs, if manas does not grasp the five dust-object aspect of the explosion sound, how could it decide to immediately flee?

After manas makes any decision, the five consciousnesses immediately arise together with mind-consciousness to carry out manas's instructions. This shows that the birth of the five consciousnesses is decided by manas; they obey manas together with mind-consciousness. Which dust-object the five consciousnesses and mind-consciousness discriminate, how long they discriminate it, and what content they focus on discriminating are all directed and dominated by manas. In summary, manas is the master consciousness; it can dominate and decide for the five sense faculties, the five dusts, and the five consciousnesses. The relationship between them is one of active and passive, dominant and subordinate.

20. The Thoughts and Emotions of Manas are Expressed Through the Six Consciousnesses

Many people in society today suffer from a depressed psychological state; even middle school students experience depression. This problem is mostly due to karmic forces (karma), and a small part is due to individual conditions (pratyaya). The main symptoms of depression are a closed-off mind, no communication with others, difficulty expressing inner thoughts, and a gloomy, uncheerful mood. Regarding such a psychological state, mind-consciousness is often baffled, not knowing why the mood is gloomy. This is caused by the obstructed mental state of manas.

Because manas has thoughts and emotions it cannot vent, no one understands its ideas, views, etc., and it doesn't even know how to find someone to talk to or seek help from. Therefore, no one can provide guidance. At the same time, it cannot communicate with its own mind-consciousness; mind-consciousness doesn't understand, so it cannot solve the problem, leading to manas becoming depressed. For many people, the root cause is a karmic issue, meaning the events manas experienced in past lives and the karmic retribution deserved from the actions committed.

Individual condition issues are: when inner wishes cannot be fulfilled, depression arises; when the environment cannot satisfy one's psychological needs, depression arises. A common characteristic of depressed people is thinking a lot but doing little, leading to unfulfilled ideas and unmet psychological needs. Accumulating too many unfulfilled thoughts creates a burden, and depression appears. Depression is also called "depressed and unfulfilled ambition" (郁郁不得志); having various desires but being unable to satisfy them leads to low mood and oppressive gloom.

Some people experience feelings of being "at a loss" (六神无主) or not wanting to live in their inner mind. This is also dominated by the emotions of manas; what mind-consciousness expresses is precisely the mental activity of manas. "At a loss" means the six consciousnesses do not know what to do or how to act because manas cannot make up its mind, hesitates, and refuses to decide or give orders. Consequently, the six consciousnesses become anxious and unsettled. The expression and reaction of manas's thoughts and emotions through the six consciousnesses manifest as the confusion of the six consciousnesses, lacking a backbone, lacking a sense of belonging, thus feeling bored and unwilling to live.

When emotionally agitated, the heartbeat accelerates. This is also caused by the emotions of manas. For example, "anger rises from the heart, evil emerges beside the gall" (怒从心头起，恶向胆边生) describes manas becoming angry and giving rise to malice. The heart, gall, five viscera, and six bowels are all mobilized by manas through the brain's nervous system. The entire physical body is mobilized by manas through the brain's nervous system; manas can control the whole body and guide its activities. When mind-consciousness is angry but manas is not, it is false anger. No matter how angry one appears, there is no inner reaction, no behavioral reaction, or if there is behavior, it is merely pretending. When there is true anger, behavioral actions occur, and the state of body and mind changes; this is the emotion of manas.

21. How to Accurately Understand the Function and Role of Manas

Why do some people always think the seventh consciousness, manas, is incapable of anything? Because the vast majority can only see the superficial functions of mind-consciousness and cannot see the functions of manas. Therefore, they attribute all functions of the five aggregates to mind-consciousness, ignoring and negating the master function of manas. They do not know that manas is the forerunner of all dharmas; the reason all dharmas appear, and mind-consciousness can contact, discriminate, and process them, is entirely the result of manas's decisions. Manas is the head of the household of the five-aggregate body.

If a useless good-for-nothing were the head of the household, one can imagine what the household would be like. Yet, in the world, there are extremely many people of great merit and great wisdom whose five-aggregate bodies perform vast amounts of wholesome and wise actions, all results dominated by manas. Even in animals, the function and role of manas are very remarkable, incomparable to the six consciousnesses. Consider this: in a group, large or small, why do subordinate members follow the leader's arrangements and deployments? Besides authority, is there nothing else? If the leader is incompetent and worthless, yet the members obey unquestioningly, aren't these members even weaker and more incompetent?

A national president or head of state cannot possibly be like the various subordinates, proficient in every specific task and skill, nor can they take on all the work of the subordinates. They stand at the commanding height, overseeing the overall situation; they cannot do specific work. You cannot say the head of state has no work just because they don't deal with the specific public, don't do specific work, and aren't proficient in technology. They are the leader, needing to take overall responsibility, make comprehensive arrangements; their work division differs from the subordinates', each has its responsibility; only through harmonious operation can the entire country be well managed.

A five-aggregate body is the same. Manas stands at the commanding height, commanding the overall situation. It cannot discriminate specific dust-objects as deeply and meticulously as mind-consciousness does—thinking, reasoning, organizing, summarizing, calculating, analyzing, scrutinizing, extremely detailed, everything in place. Its energy does not permit this. Only when meditative concentration reaches a certain level, excluding many unimportant matters, can energy concentrate and become vigorous; with greater energy, it can replace the work of the six consciousnesses and eliminate them. The manas of ordinary beings can only use the six consciousnesses to handle specific matters and respond to specific dust-objects; otherwise, the six consciousnesses would have no reason to exist.

Manas is the consciousness that constantly investigates and deliberates (manas: nitya vicāra). It works diligently and constantly operates without ceasing. Why do some people say manas is nothing and has no function? Those who consider mind-consciousness important and manas unimportant fail to recognize who the leader is, who plays the decisive role, and whose work is harder. Because the leader is hidden too deeply, they haven't seen him, so they think the leader doesn't exist, or they think the employees are the leaders. The leader doesn't understand technology; a technician reports a technical project. Although the leader doesn't understand, they still examine and approve it, finally approving it for experimentation. The leader still doesn't understand the process or results of the experiment. Manas is the leader, the decision-maker. Mind-consciousness is the technician, providing technical services for the leader. Therefore, with the services of mind-consciousness, manas doesn't need to do everything personally.

22. The Grasping of Dharmic Characteristics is Dominated by Manas

The seven consciousnesses all have a grasping nature towards the dharmas they contact and love, but ultimately, it is manas that grasps them, turning them into karmic seeds that flow into future lives. The grasping of the six consciousnesses is also initially initiated and decided by manas. When manas encounters the six dusts, if it is interested in investigating the dharmas within, it gives rise to the six consciousnesses to discriminate them. After the six consciousnesses discriminate, they generate feeling (vedanā) and craving (tṛṣṇā), after which there might be grasping mental activity. After manas discriminates the six dust characteristics discriminated by the six consciousnesses, it generates feeling and craving, then produces grasping mental activity. Consequently, the six consciousnesses crave incessantly.

The consciousnesses that grasp dharmic characteristics (nimitta) are mainly mind-consciousness and manas. The five consciousnesses also do, but their role is minor and can be neglected. When mind-consciousness encounters mental objects, it is mind-consciousness that grasps the dharmic characteristics. Afterward, manas, based on the discrimination and craving/grasping of mind-consciousness, also generates craving/grasping mental activity. After manas grasps, the result appears. Before mind-consciousness discriminates the dharmic characteristics, manas also has contact and grasping. However, manas does not have complete knowledge of the dharmic characteristics, so the purpose of grasping dharmic characteristics is for the six consciousnesses to discriminate them, for mind-consciousness to advise, and then for the final decision. Regarding the characteristics of the five dusts, the five consciousnesses also grasp, but they have no decision-making power. Their grasping mind is extremely subtle; when wisdom is insufficient, it is extremely difficult to observe the mental activity of the five consciousnesses and extremely hard to distinguish the difference between the five consciousnesses and mind-consciousness. The mental factors (caitta) of the five consciousnesses are generally bundled together with those of mind-consciousness and manas, making them unobservable, hence neglected.