Chapter Eight: Mental Factors Associated with the Manas (2)

X. The Functioning of the Prajñā Mental Factor

All eight consciousnesses possess the prajñā mental factor. Prajñā means clarity; the absence of prajñā is ignorance (avidyā). The prajñā mental factor indicates the clarity of the discerning mind (vijñāna) regarding the perceived aspect (nimitta) of its object. Of course, the degree of this clarity varies. Only the eighth consciousness (ālaya-vijñāna) possesses complete and thorough clarity regarding the perceived aspect of its object, without any ignorance. The other seven consciousnesses exhibit varying degrees of clarity regarding the perceived aspect of their objects; they are not completely clear, still containing ignorance, and ignorance predominates over clarity. The degree of clarity manifests in the differing levels of understanding of different perceived aspects and varies under different causal conditions.

The prajñā mental factor operates concurrently and inseparably mixed with other mental factors. If the prajñā mental factor does not function during the operation of the discerning mind, the mind's operation becomes disordered, the discernment of the corresponding perceived aspect becomes unclear, and it becomes impossible to make correct, reasoned, and true choices, nor can choices be made swiftly. The outcome of this is predictable. The prajñā mental factor functions at every stage of the operation of the five universal mental factors (pañca-sarvatraga) and must also function during the operation of the other five object-specific mental factors (pañca-viṣayaniyata); otherwise, the discerning mind becomes disordered and incapable of making true and reasoned choices.

For example, in the operation of the eye consciousness, the initial attention (manasikāra) and contact (sparśa) by the eye consciousness itself might occur without the participation of the prajñā mental factor. However, as the operation proceeds further, the prajñā mental factor participates. When the eye consciousness receives the form object (rūpa), the prajñā mental factor functions, knowing what the form is. Subsequently, when grasping the form object, the prajñā mental factor functions, and it functions even more when making choices regarding the form object. The stronger the prajñā mental factor, the wiser the choices, leading to more wholesome results. The same applies to the other consciousnesses, especially the sixth consciousness (mano-vijñāna) and the seventh consciousness (kliṣṭa-manas), where the force of the prajñā mental factor is greater and prajñā is stronger. However, this prajñā is also divided into worldly prajñā and Dharma prajñā. Worldly prajñā is actually still ignorance, not true clarity; it cannot lead to liberation and the attainment of Buddhahood, and may even have the opposite effect, deeply entangling one in worldly rebirth without self-awareness.

During the operation of the object-specific mental factors, the prajñā mental factor also operates simultaneously alongside them. The prajñā mental factor operates combined with the desire (chanda) mental factor, combined with the conviction (adhimokṣa) mental factor, combined with the mindfulness (smṛti) mental factor, and combined with the concentration (samādhi) mental factor. However, the strength of the prajñā mental factor varies, its efficacy differs, leading to vastly different results.

XI. The Relationship Between the Adhimokṣa Mental Factor and the Prajñā Mental Factor

The treatises state that adhimokṣa is the affirmation of an object, knowing the object is the object, believing the object is the object, without error or doubt. For example, when the mind encounters a flower or the moon, it will firmly understand them as flower and moon, without doubt, able to trust its own understanding, not easily swayed; this is adhimokṣa. The character "胜" (shèng, superior/victorious) emphasizes the degree of understanding regarding the object, approaching the reality of the object. However, it is not the final complete certainty, nor has it realized the reality of the object. Therefore, there is still the prajñā mental factor afterward. Only when the prajñā mental factor is present can the object be realized, confirmed, and fully known – the realm of the flower and moon.

Adhimokṣa is equivalent to knowing "what" (the phenomenon), while prajñā is equivalent to knowing "why" (the principle). One is understanding (解, jiě), the other is realization (证, zhèng). Adhimokṣa is shallow prajñā, the foundation of prajñā; prajñā is the ultimate, final cognition. In the practice and realization of the Dharma, the adhimokṣa mental factor corresponds to intellectual understanding (解悟, jiěwù), while the prajñā mental factor corresponds to experiential realization (证悟, zhèngwù). For intellectual understanding to transform into experiential realization, it must pass through the two stages of the mindfulness (smṛti) mental factor and the concentration (samādhi) mental factor: firmly imprinting the understood Dharma in the mind, remembering it constantly without forgetting, cultivating samādhi, focusing the mind unceasingly on investigating this Dharma, until finally the mind opens with certainty, great wisdom manifests, and realization is attained.

Understanding a flower or the moon through adhimokṣa is a worldly matter and seems not too difficult. As long as one possesses worldly concepts and knowledge, the six sense faculties are normal, and there are no obscurations, one will understand the flower and moon through adhimokṣa, which also contains some relatively shallow understanding and prajñā. However, reaching the level of adhimokṣa in the Dharma is not easy. One must possess the relevant knowledge and concepts of the Dharma and also practice the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment (bodhipakṣika-dharma) to reduce the obscurations of karmic hindrances before one can achieve adhimokṣa. But there is still a considerable distance to realization; perfecting certain causal conditions is necessary for smooth realization.

XII. All Seven Consciousnesses Possess the Adhimokṣa Mental Factor

Adhimokṣa is the discerning mind's ability to accurately comprehend and understand the dharmas it encounters; it is the most reasonable understanding, the most precise understanding, free from misinterpretation, wrong understanding, or misunderstanding. If there is misunderstanding and one cannot achieve adhimokṣa, then it is impossible to make correct and error-free choices. Consequently, one's actions and deeds will inevitably be wrong, leading to serious consequences. If, while I am teaching the Dharma, you consistently fail to achieve adhimokṣa, then my teaching is in vain, your learning is fruitless, yielding no result, and perhaps even misunderstandings will arise. If someone speaks to you and you cannot achieve adhimokṣa, you will distort their meaning and be unable to respond reasonably and appropriately. Two people cannot communicate normally, and communication becomes useless. Thus, people cannot communicate and interact with each other, nor can they live in the same space.

Among the seven consciousnesses, whichever consciousness lacks adhimokṣa cannot correctly interpret the dharmas corresponding to it and cannot make correct and appropriate choices. The result is like a blind person unable to walk; the discerning mind cannot function normally. Do the five sense consciousnesses also possess adhimokṣa? Can the five sense consciousnesses understand the Dharma? Even the minds of animals possess adhimokṣa; do all animals study Buddhism? If the adhimokṣa power of animals were entirely inferior to that of humans, how could they accurately and timely catch prey? How could they survive? In reality, if you give your furry dog a glance or an expression, the dog instantly understands and obeys the command without a word. Humans are even more so. All the physical, verbal, and mental actions of sentient beings are chosen by the manas. Since correct choices can be made to allow the five aggregates (skandhas) to function normally, then the manas must certainly possess this adhimokṣa mental factor. Not only do the six consciousnesses possess adhimokṣa, but the manas has even greater adhimokṣa power than the five sense consciousnesses and is much more astute.

XIII. Observing the Mental Activities of the Manas in a Hypnotic State

If a person's consciousness is very weak, its alerting effect and pulling force on the manas are minimal. At this time, if one attempts to hypnotize them, the manas is easily induced by the hypnotist to reveal all the secrets it knows. However, if the manas itself is very strong, possesses vigilance, and has firm willpower, it will not be induced by the hypnotist and can keep the secrets in its heart. There is a hypnosis case where the hypnotist wanted to know a person's account password. He took advantage of the person being in a semi-comatose state, where the resistance and discriminatory power of consciousness were very low, to hypnotize this person. Simultaneously, he installed a brainwave monitoring device on the person's head to obtain information about the person's brainwaves at any time, to understand the thoughts and secrets in the person's mind through the brainwaves, and to translate the brainwaves into textual information.

However, this person had strong willpower and was prepared in advance. The hypnotist asked unimportant questions, and the person answered truthfully. But when it came to critical questions about the password, the person initially gave random answers and later refused to answer. Nevertheless, thoughts still arose in the mind, so the instrument could display the fluctuations of the person's brainwaves; there were current signals flashing on the instrument, and the brainwaves were instantly translated into textual information. But when it came to the core password question, not only did the person not answer, but they also discarded thoughts in their mind, shut down brain thinking, and the brainwaves became blank and could not be displayed. Naturally, no text could be translated either. As a result, the hypnotist used many methods but failed to get the person to reveal the account password.

What can be observed from this phenomenon? During the hypnosis process, consciousness is very weak and can only perform slight discernment. The five sense consciousnesses are also very weak and, together with consciousness, perform slight discernment, transmitting the meaning of the hypnotist's voice to the manas and transmitting the sensation of pain in the body to the manas. Initially, consciousness could still perform slight thinking and analysis. As the level of unconsciousness deepened, consciousness became increasingly unclear until it disappeared. The information about the six sense objects (ṣaḍ-viṣaya) transmitted by the six consciousnesses became increasingly unclear, and the auxiliary function of thinking and analysis ceased. At this point, the manas was almost entirely on its own facing the hypnotist's instructions.

When consciousness operates normally, the manas can follow the opinions and suggestions thought out by consciousness's analysis. Moreover, the thinking of consciousness is almost always centered around the manas, so what the manas follows is almost still its own instructions; it complies with its own thoughts. However, when hypnotized, the hypnotist's instructions replace the guidance and suggestions of consciousness. If the manas is not firm-willed and is successfully hypnotized, it will follow the hypnotist's instructions and straightforwardly reveal the secrets in its heart without reservation. The relationship between the manas and the six consciousnesses is that of master and servant. The six consciousnesses are responsible for observing and discerning the six sense objects, transmitting information about the six sense objects, obeying the instructions of the manas, and using body, speech, and mind to express the manas's thoughts and views. When the six consciousnesses are very weak, the thoughts and views of the manas cannot be revealed, and many functions cannot be effectively exerted. However, the manas can still perceive and discern the objects of the six sense fields and still has its own dominant thoughts.

Is there still the view of self (satkāya-dṛṣṭi) after the six consciousnesses become weak or disappear? Is this view of self the same as when the six consciousnesses are present? Is the view of self more apparent at this time? In fact, the view of self belongs to the manas; consciousness merely follows the manas's view of self and expresses it. In this case, the person was hypnotized, the six consciousnesses were weak or disappeared; did the manas exhibit a strong view of self and self-attachment (ātma-grāha)? In fact, it is always the manas that maintains the "self." Self-attachment originates from the view of self; without the view of self, there is no self-attachment. The strong self-attachment of the manas precisely indicates the strong view of self held by the manas.

How is language produced? How are brainwaves produced? Why can't one speak when the body is weak? Why, when the body becomes extremely weak, do brainwaves cease? Why does the manas, fearing the leakage of the password, eliminate thoughts, thereby causing brainwaves to disappear? Instrument measurements reveal that brainwaves occur first, followed by vocalized language. Vocalized language is a function of consciousness, while brainwaves are entirely the manifestation of the manas having ideas and thoughts. Without the six consciousnesses, the manas still has mental activity; there are brainwaves. As soon as the manas has thoughts, brainwaves fluctuate. Brainwaves are unrelated to consciousness; the manas directly eliminates its own thoughts; without thoughts, there are no brainwaves.

If the body is not weak and has energy, a stream of qi will be generated in the dantian (elixir field). When this qi rises and reaches the root of the tongue, language is produced. This indicates that the activity of consciousness is regulated and commanded by the manas and revolves around the manas. When the manas does not want to speak or express thoughts, there are no words or language. When the manas does not want to use the brain, brainwave fluctuations become gentle. What does this illustrate? It illustrates that the manas is the master, the king, the ruler; the six consciousnesses are the servants, the ministers. To capture the rebels, first capture the leader. Cultivation must exert effort on the manas; transforming the manas is the true path.

Does the manas actually possess the mindfulness (smṛti) mental factor? In the hypnotic state, brainwaves can appear precisely because the manas has mental thoughts; without mental thoughts, there are no brainwaves. The desire to achieve a certain goal is the desire (chanda) mental factor. Does the manas possess the desire mental factor? In the hypnotic state, the manas wants to protect the secret in its heart and eliminates thoughts; this desire to protect is the desire mental factor. Clearly understanding and firmly comprehending (adhimokṣa) the sense objects is the adhimokṣa mental factor. Does the manas possess the adhimokṣa mental factor? In the hypnotic state, the manas clearly understands the meaning of the hypnotist's words and the hypnotist's purpose; this is the adhimokṣa mental factor. The manas unwaveringly protecting the secret in its heart is the concentration (samādhi) mental factor. To protect the secret, it shut down the thoughts in the heart; this is the prajñā mental factor of the manas. All afflictive mental factors (kleśa) are also primarily associated with the manas. The afflictions of consciousness all revolve around the manas; they are insignificant, easily arising and easily ceasing. As long as the manas is free from afflictions, consciousness naturally will not have afflictions. How can servants do what the king does not permit?

Consider also wartime: Communist Party members captured by the enemy endure inhuman torture, physically and mentally, to extract confessions. Those with strong willpower did not betray or reveal the organization even unto death. Was this the strength of consciousness or the strength of the manas? Does consciousness have faith, or does the manas have faith? Is hatred of consciousness or of the manas? All dharmas reside in the manas. The manas may deeply hate a person but outwardly use the six consciousnesses to disguise itself, appearing to like that person. However, a wise person can see at a glance that the hatred, not the liking, is in the bones. In the hypnotic state, the dominant position of the manas and its mental factors are clearly observed; the functional role of the manas is extremely important.

XIV. The Relationship Between the Mental Factors of Consciousness and the Mental Factors of the Manas

Question: "After the consciousness seeds (bīja) give rise to and form the seven consciousnesses, mental factors accompany their operation, and only then does the discerning mind have the three natures: wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral." Are these mental factors the mental factors belonging to the manas? Because the manas contains innate and discriminative habitual tendencies, while the first six consciousnesses, when born and formed from consciousness seeds, should all be pure, and only after being influenced by the mental factors of the manas do they acquire the three natures. Is this understanding correct?

Answer: Whichever consciousness operates, its own mental factors accompany it. Because consciousness is regulated and commanded by the manas, once consciousness begins to operate, the arising of its own mental factors is inevitably influenced by the mental factors of the manas and regulated by the manas. If the manas intends to perform wholesome actions, after the wholesome mental factors arise, they will inevitably cause the wholesome mental factors of consciousness to arise to fulfill the manas's instructions. The arising of unwholesome mental factors and neutral mental factors follows the same pattern.

If the manas wishes to give (dāna), it must command the six consciousnesses to carry out the specific operations. Thus, the arising of the six consciousnesses is to cooperate with the manas, to execute the wholesome act of giving. Therefore, the mental factors of consciousness, upon arising, are inevitably wholesome and consistent with the mental factors of the manas. If the manas does not wish to give, then regarding the wholesome act of giving, consciousness and its mental factors do not arise and operate. This means that whenever the mental factors of the discerning mind operate, the three natures appear. Therefore, to purify the discerning mind, one only needs to purify the mental factors of the root manas, and the other consciousnesses will follow and become purified.

If the manas wishes to kill or set fires, it will give rise to the six consciousnesses to accomplish this unwholesome act, because the specific operations of killing and arson require the six consciousnesses to complete; the manas cannot operate them. Therefore, once the six consciousnesses arise, their mental factors are inevitably unwholesome and consistent with those of the manas. Thus, the manas possesses all wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral mental factors, enabling the six consciousnesses to possess all mental factors to operate physical, verbal, and mental actions. It is not as some say that the manas possesses only a portion of the mental factors. If the mental factors of the manas were incomplete, the manas would be unable to make decisions and act in many matters. If the manas does not make the decision, how can the six consciousnesses operate?

The mental factors of consciousness are initially consistent with those of the manas. However, after contemplation, if consciousness feels the matter is incorrect, it can also change its mental factors and then turn back to persuade and influence the manas. Consciousness can also sometimes oppose the manas. For example, the manas may want to do something bad, but consciousness hesitates and does not carry it out. After changing its mind, it can also change the manas's mind. This is the influencing function of consciousness. Changing the manas always occurs through the influence of consciousness. Experiencing a certain event, consciousness contemplates the pros and cons, so the manas comes to know the pros and cons, and in the future, it will have choices in its actions. However, the influence of consciousness varies in speed, depending on the wisdom and skillfulness of consciousness.

XV. The Strength of the Manas

As cultivation deepens continuously and concentration (samādhi) and wisdom (prajñā) become increasingly complete, the manas gradually becomes stronger. The sign of the manas becoming strong is the transformation of consciousness into wisdom (jñāna); the mental factors transform. The strength of the manas represents the strength of the mental factors; strong mental factors make the manas strong, indestructible, possessing the five universal mental factors, the five object-specific mental factors, and the eleven wholesome mental factors. The afflictive mental factors have long been completely eradicated, though there may still be some very subtle afflictive habits and some subtle clinging to dharmas (dharma-grāha). When the manas becomes strong enough, it will replace the six consciousnesses; without needing the supporting conditions of the six consciousnesses, it alone can perceive the objects of the six sense fields, coarse or subtle, without any problem. At this time, great supernatural powers (ṛddhi) will manifest.

XVI. What is Cultivation About?

Ultimately, is cultivation about eliminating consciousness or eliminating the manas? Eliminating consciousness is the cause; eliminating the manas is the result. Although eliminating the manas is the ultimate goal, the starting point must still begin with consciousness. Consciousness dies every night; the consciousness of a vegetative person is almost always dead, yet future rebirths still inevitably fall into the three lower realms (durgati), not to mention the cycle of the six realms. What does this illustrate? It illustrates that the authority over life and death is held by the manas. Therefore, cultivation must be implemented at the level of the manas: understanding the manas, subduing the manas, and eradicating the ignorance of the manas. How exactly does one operate to eliminate the ignorance of the manas? Ignorance extends to give rise to all afflictive mental factors. Then, whose mental factors are primarily the afflictive mental factors? It is the ignorance of the manas that leads to the suffering of birth, aging, sickness, and death. Which afflictive mental factors does the manas not possess? If the manas did not possess all afflictive mental factors, wouldn't cultivation be very easy and pleasant?

Some insist on saying the manas is neither wholesome nor unwholesome. If so, do we still need to cultivate? The Tathāgatagarbha is neither wholesome nor unwholesome; therefore, the Tathāgatagarbha never cultivates and fundamentally does not need to cultivate. What is there to cultivate? What is there for it to correct? It has no ignorance, no unwholesomeness, and no perversity. If the Tathāgatagarbha were to cultivate, it would probably cultivate perversely, cultivate crookedly. Both wholesomeness and unwholesomeness are ignorance; having ignorance necessarily means having wholesomeness and unwholesomeness. The Tathāgatagarbha has no ignorance; therefore, it neither creates wholesome karma nor unwholesome karma. It responds according to conditions, without deliberate effort (无所用心). Having ignorance, one has hatred (dveṣa), which gives rise to the mind creating killing karma; having ignorance, one has delusion (moha), which leads to creating killing karma.

XVII. The Decisive Role of the Manas in the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination

Sentient beings have the great mass of suffering consisting of birth, aging, sickness, and death entirely because there is ignorance. This ignorance is the ignorance of the manas. Because the manas has ignorance, there is the mental formation (saṃskāra) mental factor (cetanā). Having the cetanā mental factor, there are choices that create karma, and afterward, the six consciousnesses appear. The first two limbs of the twelve links (nidāna) belong to the manas. The third limb, the six consciousnesses, also arises because of the manas. Therefore, the manas has an absolutely dominant role regarding birth and death and a driving force regarding other dharmas. Even the karmic actions (saṃskāra) of the third limb (the six consciousnesses) arise in accordance with the manas, and the seeds deposited are also due to the manas. Therefore, the name-and-form (nāmarūpa) of future lives exists because of the manas. If the manas is defiled, the six consciousnesses are defiled, the seeds are defiled, and name-and-form will have much suffering, especially the suffering of the three lower realms.

After name-and-form increases, the six sense bases (ṣaḍ-āyatana) are born. The contact (sparśa) between the six sense bases and the six sense objects is governed by the manas. If the manas grasps (攀缘) much, contact is frequent, and karmic actions leading to birth and death are many. If grasping is little, contact is infrequent, and karmic actions leading to birth and death are few. The feeling (vedanā), craving (tṛṣṇā), and grasping (upādāna) that follow contact, although involving the feeling, craving, and grasping of the six consciousnesses, are actually decisively influenced in terms of bringing about the next limb by the feeling, craving, and grasping of the manas. If the manas has no feeling, craving, or grasping, the next limb does not appear. The final three limbs – becoming (bhava), birth (jāti), and aging-and-death (jarāmaraṇa) – arise entirely because of the grasping of the manas. Therefore, the arising of the cycle of birth and death is decisively determined by the manas.

The twelve links elucidate that the manas is the root of birth and death. Liberation and sinking both depend on the manas. To end birth and death, one must resolve the problem of the manas and eradicate the ignorance of the manas. The manas is also the root of the Four Noble Truths: suffering (duḥkha), its origin (samudaya), cessation (nirodha), and the path (mārga). Suffering arises because the ignorance and mental formations of the manas prompt the six consciousnesses to create karma. The origin (accumulation) arises because the manas prompts the six consciousnesses to create karma, depositing seeds. Cessation is the cessation of the ignorant mental formations of the manas. The path is attained through the manas realizing the Dharma.

Since the manas plays such an immense and decisive role within the cycle of birth and death, it must possess all mental factors: all wholesome mental factors, all afflictive mental factors, and neutral mental factors. The mental factors of the manas determine the mental factors of the five sense consciousnesses and determine the mental factors of consciousness. When the mental factors of the manas change, the mental factors of the six consciousnesses change, and all dharmas change accordingly. If the mental factors of the manas are not changed, even if the mental factors of the six consciousnesses change, they will change back again. If the afflictions of the manas are not severed, even if the afflictions of consciousness are severed, they will regenerate. If the manas lacks concentration (samādhi), even if the six consciousnesses have concentration, it will not last long and will inevitably become scattered again.

XVIII. The Classification of Worldly Dharmas

Mental factors (caitasika), as the name suggests, are dharmas belonging to the mind (citta). Emotions, attitudes, opinions, suggestions, anxiety, agitation, jealousy, sadness, etc., are all dharmas arising on the mind, belonging to the mind, so they are all called mental factors. Dharmas arising on the body, belonging to the body, are, as the name suggests, called body factors (身所有法). Dharmas belonging to the physical body, such as falling ill, changes in weight, various accidents occurring, some things growing, or some things diminishing, etc. – all arising, ceasing, and changes pertaining to the body are body factors. The physical body is divided into the internal body and the external body. The internal body is the body itself; the external body is the six sense objects: forms, sounds, smells, tastes, tangibles, and dharmas. Together, they constitute the five aggregates (skandhas). The body is form (rūpa); dharmas arising on the body are also form, so what belongs to the body is also form. All dharmas belonging to the body also belong to the mind. To which mind does this "mind" refer?

All worldly dharmas are divided into form dharmas (rūpa) and mind dharmas (citta), as well as dharmas that are neither form nor mind. Their belonging is classified as belonging to the mind, belonging to the body, and belonging to neither body nor mind. All these dharmas are subsumed under what belongs to the Tathāgatagarbha. Once all dharmas are subsumed under the Tathāgatagarbha, nothing remains. So what are we still clinging to now? It's all empty, all illusory. Alas, the habit of clinging is too deep-rooted, too difficult to change. The ultimate reason is that the true reality of the Dharma realm has not been clearly understood, not seen clearly. This matter requires three great asamkhyeya kalpas to be thoroughly clarified; at that point, cultivation will also be complete.