Exposition on the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination in the Yogācārabhūmi
Section Two: The Gateway to Dependent Origination and the Meaning of Dependent Origination
Original Text: What is the gateway to dependent origination? It refers to the arising of cyclic existence (samsara) dependent on eight gateways. 1. The gateway for the arising of internal consciousness. 2. The gateway for the ripening of external crops. 3. The gateway for the death and birth of sentient beings in the world. 4. The gateway for the formation and destruction of the inanimate world. 5. The gateway for sustenance through food. 6. The gateway for experiencing agreeable and disagreeable results, according to the karmic force accumulated from one's own actions. 7. The gateway of power and influence. 8. The gateway of purity.
Explanation: What is the gateway to dependent origination? It is the phenomenon of the arising of the flow of life dependent on eight gateways as conditions. The eight gateways are respectively: 1. The gateway for the arising of consciousness within the five aggregates (skandhas) body; 2. The gateway for the ripening of external karmic retribution causes and conditions; 3. The gateway for death and birth within the world of the five aggregates of sentient beings; 4. The gateway for the formation, abiding, decay, and emptiness of the cosmic inanimate world; 5. The gateway for sustenance and maintenance through food; 6. The gateway for experiencing agreeable and disagreeable karmic results, due to the force of the actions one has created and the subsequent experience according to that karma; 7. The gateway of the dignity, virtue, and power one possesses; 8. The gateway for the purification of the mind.
Original Text: What is the meaning of dependent origination? The meaning of the absence of a sentient being (nairātmya) is the meaning of dependent origination. Within the absence of a sentient being, the meaning of impermanence is the meaning of dependent origination. Within impermanence, the meaning of momentary abiding is the meaning of dependent origination. Within momentary abiding, the meaning of dependence on others is the meaning of dependent origination. Within dependence on others, the meaning of the absence of real function is the meaning of dependent origination. Within the absence of real function, the meaning of the uninterrupted continuity of cause and effect is the meaning of dependent origination. Within the uninterrupted continuity of cause and effect, the meaning of the apparent, similar transformation of cause and effect is the meaning of dependent origination. Within the apparent, similar transformation of cause and effect, the meaning of being created by one's own actions is the meaning of dependent origination.
Explanation: What is the meaning of dependent origination? The absence of an intrinsic nature of sentient beings, the meaning that sentient beings lack intrinsic nature, the meaning that there is no real sentient being – this is the meaning of dependent origination; the lack of intrinsic nature of sentient beings combined with the impermanence of sentient beings is the meaning of dependent origination; sentient beings are not only impermanent but also possess the meaning of momentary abiding followed by disintegration, this is the meaning of dependent origination; sentient beings are not only momentary but also dependently arisen, this is the meaning of dependent origination; sentient beings are not only dependently arisen but also lack real function, this is the meaning of dependent origination; although sentient beings lack real function, cause and effect operate continuously without interruption, this is the meaning of dependent origination; although sentient beings seem to operate continuously through cause and effect in appearance, in reality there is no real cause or effect, the meaning of the absence of real cause and effect is the meaning of dependent origination; although cause and effect appear to transform similarly without real cause and effect, it is the result induced by the actions of the sentient being themselves, this is the meaning of dependent origination.
In summary, the meaning of dependent origination is the absence of real dharmas; it is a provisional and illusory phenomenon that appears due to the aggregation of causes and conditions. It seems to exist but is ultimately unreal. Therefore, sentient beings are dependently originated dharmas; there is no real sentient being. Sentient beings are impermanent, momentary, dependently arisen, lack the real function of the five aggregates, and are the continuous succession of causes and effects, yet there is no substantial cause and effect, because cause and effect are also dependently originated dharmas, unreal dharmas.
Original Text: Question: For the sake of revealing what meaning is dependent origination established? Answer: It is established to reveal the meaning of defilement and purity encompassed by causes and conditions. What are the distinctions of dependent origination? They are ignorance regarding the past, etc., as extensively explained in the sutras.
What is ignorance regarding the past? It is the arising of irrational discrimination regarding past formations (samskāras), such as: "Did I exist in the past? Did I not exist? What was my nature? What kind was I?" – all such ignorance. What is ignorance regarding the future? It is the arising of irrational discrimination regarding future formations, such as: "Will I exist in the future? Will I not exist? What will my nature be? What kind will I be?" – all such ignorance.
Explanation: Question: For the sake of revealing what Dharma meaning is the establishment of dependent origination? Answer: To reveal the meaning of sentient beings' defilement and purity as encompassed by the distinctions of causes and conditions. What is the distinction of dependent origination? Ignorance regarding the past, present, and future lifetimes is the distinction of dependent origination, as extensively elaborated in the Buddhist sutras.
What is ignorance regarding the past? It is the arising of irrational discrimination regarding the formations of the past life, doubting and saying: "Did I really have a past life? Did I really not have a past life? What appearance and nature did I have in the past life? What kind of being was I?" All such ignorance is ignorance regarding the past. What is ignorance regarding the future? It is the arising of irrational discrimination regarding the formations of the future life, doubting and saying: "Will I have a future life? Will I not have a future life? What appearance and nature will my future life have? What kind of being will I be?" All such ignorance is ignorance regarding the future.
Original Text: What is ignorance regarding past and future? It is the arising of irrational doubt internally, such as: "What is called 'I'? What am I? From where did this present sentient being come? After perishing here, where will it go?" – all such ignorance.
Explanation: What is ignorance regarding past and future lifetimes? It is the arising of irrational doubt regarding oneself, doubting and saying: "What is called 'I'? What am I? Where did the present sentient being come from? After perishing in this world, where will it go?" etc. All such ignorance is ignorance regarding past and future. Ignorance regarding the three times is ignorance regarding cause and effect and rebirth, ignorance regarding life and death. This is the greatest ignorance of sentient beings, also called fundamental ignorance (mūlāvidyā) and beginningless ignorance (anādyavidyā).
Original Text: What is internal ignorance? It is the arising of irrational mental attention (manaskāra) towards the various individual formations, conceiving them as 'I' – all such ignorance. What is external ignorance? It is the arising of irrational mental attention towards external, non-sentient formations, conceiving them as 'mine' – all such ignorance. What is internal-external ignorance? It is the arising of irrational discrimination towards the formations in others' continua, conceiving them as enemies, friends, neutrals, etc. – all such ignorance.
Explanation: What is ignorance regarding the internal? It is the arising of irrational mental attention towards all formations within oneself, conceiving these formations as 'I'. All ignorance similar to clinging to the 'I' of the five aggregates is internal ignorance. What is external ignorance? It is the arising of irrational mental attention towards external inanimate objects, including the six sense objects (rūpa, śabda, gandha, rasa, sparśa, dharma), conceiving these dharmas as belonging to me. All mental attention similar to this is external ignorance. What is internal-external ignorance? It is the arising of irrational discrimination towards the continuous formations of other sentient beings, conceiving these sentient beings as one's own enemies, friends, etc. All ignorance similar to this is internal-external ignorance.
Internal ignorance: 'Internal' refers to one's own five aggregates body. External ignorance: 'External' refers to the six sense objects. Internal-external ignorance: 'Internal-external' refers to the five aggregates bodies and six sense objects of other sentient beings. Grasping internal and external dharmas as 'I' and 'mine', apprehending them as real dharmas, is ignorance.
Original Text: What is ignorance regarding karma? It is the arising of irrational discrimination towards various karmas, conceiving there to be a doer – all such ignorance. What is ignorance regarding maturation (vipāka)? It is the arising of irrational discrimination towards the formations encompassed by maturation-result, conceiving there to be an experiencer – all such ignorance. What is ignorance regarding karma and maturation? It is the arising of irrational discrimination towards karma and its result – all such ignorance.
Explanation: What is ignorance regarding karmic actions? It is the arising of irrational discrimination towards all karmic actions, conceiving that these actions have a doer. All ignorance similar to this is ignorance regarding karmic actions. What is ignorance regarding maturation-result? It is the arising of irrational discrimination towards the formations encompassed by maturation-result, saying that this maturation-result has an experiencer. All ignorance similar to this is ignorance regarding maturation-result. What is ignorance regarding karmic actions and maturation? It is the arising of irrational discrimination towards karmic actions and their karmic results. All such ignorance is ignorance regarding karmic actions and maturation-result.
Why is conceiving that all karmic actions have a doer considered ignorance? Because karmic actions are dependently originated dharmas, phenomena arising from the aggregation of causes and conditions; they are illusory, provisional dharmas without real substance. The same applies to the doer; both are provisional dharmas aggregated by causes and conditions, illusory dharmas without a real entity. The doer and the done are both empty. What is maturation-result? The karmic results experienced in a future life due to actions created in a past life are maturation-result. Maturation-result is a dependently originated dharma, an unreal dharma. Since there is a result, there is a sentient being experiencing the result, but sentient beings are dependently originated entities, phenomena aggregated by causes and conditions, not real dharmas. Both the maturation-result and the experiencer are empty; therefore, conceiving that maturation-result has an experiencer is ignorance. Similarly, conceiving that karmic actions have a doer, and conceiving that maturation-result has an experiencer, both constitute ignorance.
Original Text: What is ignorance regarding the Buddha? It is the lack of contemplation, or wrong contemplation, or due to heedlessness, or due to doubt, or due to slander regarding the Buddha's enlightenment (bodhi) – all such ignorance. What is ignorance regarding the Dharma? It is the lack of contemplation, or wrong contemplation, or due to heedlessness, or due to doubt, or due to slander regarding the well-spoken nature of the true Dharma – all such ignorance. What is ignorance regarding the Sangha? It is the lack of contemplation, or wrong contemplation, or due to heedlessness, or due to doubt, or due to slander regarding the virtuous conduct of the Sangha – all such ignorance.
Explanation: What is ignorance regarding the Buddha? Regarding the path to Buddhahood (Bodhi), either not contemplating it, or contemplating it wrongly, or being heedless and not diligently practicing, or harboring doubt, or slandering it – all such ignorance is ignorance regarding the Buddha. What is ignorance regarding the Dharma? Regarding the true Dharma which is well-spoken, either not contemplating it, or contemplating it wrongly, or being heedless and not diligently practicing, or harboring doubt, or slandering it without cause – all such ignorance is ignorance regarding the Dharma. What is ignorance regarding the Sangha? Regarding the virtuous conduct of the monastic Sangha, either not contemplating it, or contemplating it wrongly, or being heedless in mind, or harboring doubt, or slandering it without cause – all such ignorance is ignorance regarding the Sangha.
This is ignorance regarding the Three Jewels (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha). Not applying one's mind to contemplate the virtues of the Three Jewels, contemplating wrongly, or harboring doubt, or slandering them – all bodily, verbal, and mental actions constitute ignorance. The consequence of ignorance regarding the Three Jewels is sinking into the sea of suffering of birth and death, unable to attain liberation.
Original Text: What is ignorance regarding suffering? It is the lack of contemplation, or wrong contemplation, or due to heedlessness, or due to doubt, or due to slander regarding the nature of suffering as suffering – all such ignorance. As with suffering, it should be understood that ignorance regarding origin, cessation, and the path is likewise.
Explanation: What is ignorance regarding suffering? Regarding the principle that suffering has the nature of suffering, either not contemplating it, or contemplating it wrongly, or being heedless and not diligently contemplating it, or harboring doubt, or slandering it – all such ignorance is ignorance regarding suffering. Ignorance regarding suffering is like this; similarly, ignorance regarding the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the path leading to the cessation of suffering is also like this. This is called ignorance regarding the origin, ignorance regarding cessation, and ignorance regarding the path.
Original Text: What is ignorance regarding cause? It is the arising of irrational discrimination, such as positing no cause, or positing Īśvara (Lord), prakṛti (primordial nature), puruṣa (person), intermediate state, etc., as unequal causes – all such ignorance. As with ignorance regarding cause, it is likewise with ignorance regarding the formations arisen from cause.
Explanation: What is ignorance regarding cause? It is the arising of irrational discrimination regarding the cause of the arising of the world of the five aggregates, such as asserting that sentient beings arise without cause, or asserting that they are created by Maheśvara (Great Lord), or asserting that they are created by some deity, or asserting that they are created by a Self (puruṣa), or asserting that they are created by various creator gods, etc. Asserting that these creators create sentient beings is positing them as the cause of the inequality of sentient beings. All lack of knowledge regarding the cause of the arising of the five-aggregate world is ignorance regarding cause. Just as there is ignorance regarding karmic causes, there is likewise ignorance regarding the formations arisen from causes.
Since one does not know the arising and origin of the five-aggregate world, one also does not know the arising and origin of the formations of the five aggregates. The arising of the five-aggregate world is observed from two perspectives: first, from the perspective of emptiness according to the Śrāvakayāna, and second, from the perspective of the ālayavijñāna (storehouse consciousness) or vipākavijñāna (maturation consciousness) according to the Mahāyāna. Of course, observation from the perspective of the vipākavijñāna is the most ultimate observation, revealing the truest reality, capable of eliminating all ignorance regarding arising causes and discerning causes, eliminating all ignorance (avidyā).
Original Text: Furthermore, that which is non-sinful is called wholesome (kuśala). That which is sinful is called unwholesome (akuśala). That which is beneficial is called to be cultivated. That which is non-beneficial is called not to be cultivated. Black (sinful) is called sinful. White (non-sinful) is called non-sinful. Mixed is called differentiated. What is ignorance regarding the thorough understanding of the six sense-spheres (ṣaḍāyatana)? It is the inverted thinking within realization by those with overestimation (adhimāna) – all such ignorance. Thus, briefly, there are nineteen kinds of ignorance.
Explanation: Formations that are non-sinful are called wholesome dharmas. Formations that are sinful are called unwholesome dharmas. That which is beneficial to oneself is called what should be cultivated. That which is non-beneficial is called what should not be cultivated. Created karmic actions that are defiled are therefore called sinful. Created karmic actions that are pure are called non-sinful. Because the karmic actions of sentient beings are mixed with defilement and purity, they are called differentiated.
What is ignorance regarding the thorough understanding of the six sense-spheres? This refers to those with overestimation (adhimāna) – those who claim realization without attainment – who, in their practice and realization process, think inverted thoughts, cannot truly know the six sense-spheres, cannot thoroughly understand the true principle of the six sense-spheres. All ignorance related to the six sense-spheres is ignorance regarding the thorough understanding of the six sense-spheres. The above types of ignorance, briefly stated, total nineteen kinds.
The meaning of adhimāna (overestimation) is to give rise to conceit regarding the higher fruits (adhipatiphala). Adhipatiphala generally refers to the fruits of the Śrāvakayāna from Stream-enterer (Srotāpanna) to Arhat (Arhat). When hearing, contemplating, and practicing reach a certain level, wisdom increases, and one attains realization; the mind corresponds to the respective fruit. Claiming attainment without having actually attained it is giving rise to conceit regarding the higher fruits; this is called adhimāna. People with adhimāna, lacking actual realization, do not thoroughly understand the six sense-spheres. The six sense-spheres are the eye-sphere, ear-sphere, nose-sphere, tongue-sphere, body-sphere, and mind-sphere. At the six sense-spheres, there is contact (sparśa) between the six sense faculties and the six sense objects, after which feelings (vedanā) arise. Not thoroughly understanding the six entrances (āyatana), contact, and feeling, not contemplating and observing according to principle, is ignorance.
Original Text: Furthermore, there are seven kinds of ignorance: 1. Ignorance of time (world). 2. Ignorance of things. 3. Ignorance of transformation. 4. Ignorance of the supreme. 5. Ignorance of reality. 6. Ignorance of defilement and purity. 7. Ignorance of overestimation (adhimāna).
Explanation: Additionally, there are seven kinds of ignorance: 1. Ignorance regarding the three times – past, present, and future; 2. Ignorance regarding the internal and external formations and activities of the five-aggregate world; 3. Ignorance regarding the continuous operation, arising and ceasing, and transformation of the five-aggregate world; 4. Ignorance regarding the supreme Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha; 5. Ignorance regarding the true principle of suffering, origin, cessation, and the path within the five-aggregate world; 6. Ignorance regarding the defilement and purity of the body and mind of the five aggregates; 7. Ignorance of one's own mind regarding the realization and thorough understanding of dependent origination, claiming realization without attainment.
Original Text: How do the previous nineteen ignorances relate to the present seven ignorances? The first three ignorances encompass the first [of the seven]. The next three ignorances encompass the second. The next three ignorances encompass the third. The next three ignorances encompass the fourth. The next four ignorances encompass the fifth. The next two ignorances encompass the sixth. The last ignorance encompasses the seventh.
Explanation: What is the relationship of encompassment between the previous nineteen ignorances and the present seven ignorances? Among the nineteen ignorances, the first three – ignorance regarding the past, ignorance regarding the future, ignorance regarding past and future – are encompassed by the first of the seven ignorances – ignorance of time (three times). The next three ignorances – internal ignorance, external ignorance, internal-external ignorance – are encompassed by the second of the seven ignorances – ignorance of internal and external things. The next three ignorances – ignorance regarding karma, ignorance regarding maturation, ignorance regarding karma and maturation – are encompassed by the third ignorance – ignorance of transformation.
The next three ignorances – ignorance regarding Buddha, Dharma, Sangha – are encompassed by the fourth ignorance – ignorance of the supreme. The next four ignorances – ignorance regarding suffering, origin, cessation, path – are encompassed by the fifth ignorance – ignorance of reality. The next two ignorances – ignorance regarding cause, ignorance regarding formations arisen from cause – are encompassed by the sixth ignorance – ignorance of defilement and purity. The last ignorance – ignorance regarding the thorough understanding of the six sense-spheres – is encompassed by the seventh ignorance – ignorance of overestimation (adhimāna).
Original Text: Furthermore, there are five kinds of ignorance: 1. Ignorance of meaning. 2. Ignorance of view. 3. Ignorance of heedlessness. 4. Ignorance of the meaning of reality. 5. Ignorance of overestimation. How do the previous nineteen ignorances relate to the present five ignorances? The ignorance of view encompasses the first six [of the nineteen], and the ignorance regarding dharmas arisen from causes. The ignorance of heedlessness encompasses the ignorance regarding karma and maturation together. The ignorance of the meaning of reality encompasses the ignorance regarding the Buddha, etc., up to the truth of the path. The ignorance of overestimation encompasses the last ignorance. It should be understood that the ignorance of meaning universally encompasses all.
Explanation: Additionally, there are five kinds of ignorance: 1. Ignorance regarding all dharmas; 2. Ignorance lacking right knowledge and view; 3. Ignorance of heedlessness regarding the flow of birth and death; 4. Ignorance regarding the true meaning of the Three Jewels and the Four Noble Truths; 5. Ignorance of overestimation, claiming realization without attainment. What is the relationship of encompassment between the previously mentioned nineteen ignorances and the present five ignorances? The ignorance of view (dṛṣṭy-ajñāna) encompasses the first six of the nineteen ignorances: ignorance regarding past, future, past and future; internal, external, internal-external; and ignorance regarding dharmas arisen from causes. The ignorance of heedlessness (pramādājñāna) encompasses the ignorance regarding karma and maturation together among the nineteen. The ignorance of the meaning of reality (tattvārthājñāna) encompasses the ignorance regarding Buddha, Dharma, Sangha among the nineteen, up to ignorance regarding the Four Noble Truths. The ignorance of overestimation (adhimānājñāna) encompasses the last ignorance among the nineteen – ignorance regarding the six sense-spheres. The ignorance of meaning (arthājñāna) encompasses all nineteen ignorances.
Original Text: Furthermore, ignorance (ajñāna), lack of view (adarśana), lack of direct perception (anupalakṣaṇa), darkness (andhakāra), stupidity (mūḍhatā), and obscurity of ignorance (avidyāndhakāra) – these six kinds of distinctions of ignorance should be known sequentially corresponding to the previously mentioned seven objects of ignorance. Regarding the last two objects of ignorance, combine them into one; this gives rise to the last obscurity of ignorance.
Explanation: Additionally, ignorance, lack of right view, inability to observe directly, mental darkness, stupidity, and obscurity of ignorance – these six distinctions of ignorance should also be known sequentially corresponding to the previously mentioned seven objects of ignorance. The six kinds of ignorance and the last two objects of ignorance among the seven – ignorance of defilement-purity and ignorance of overestimation – are combined together, giving rise to the last obscurity of ignorance among the six kinds.
Original Text: Furthermore, there is a distinction: the three wisdoms formed by hearing, contemplation, and meditation counteract the distinctions [of ignorance]. In that order, they counteract the first three [kinds of ignorance]. The distinctions of what is counteracted – inferior, middling, and superior – are spoken of as the latter three [kinds of ignorance]. Thus, due to the distinctions of what is counteracted and due to the distinctions of their intrinsic nature, the establishment of six distinctions should be understood.
Explanation: Furthermore, there is a distinction: the three wisdoms formed through hearing (śrutamayī prajñā), contemplation (cintāmayī prajñā), and meditation (bhāvanāmayī prajñā) counteract the distinctions of two kinds of ignorance. According to the sequence, they counteract the first three among the ignorances – ignorance, lack of view, and lack of direct perception. The distinctions of the inferior, middling, and superior grades counteracted by these wisdoms correspond to the latter three among the six ignorances – darkness, stupidity, and obscurity of ignorance. It should also be understood that based on the distinctions counteracted by the three wisdoms, and the intrinsic nature distinctions of these dharmas, these six distinctions of ignorance are established.
During hearing, contemplation, and meditation, the wisdoms of hearing, contemplation, and meditation arise. These three wisdoms are distinct and progressively deeper. The greatest wisdom, of course, is the wisdom obtained through meditation. The shallowest wisdom is that obtained through hearing the Dharma. The wisdom obtained through contemplation is deeper than hearing-wisdom but shallower than meditation-wisdom. Therefore, the stupidity counteracted by these three wisdoms also differs. Hearing-wisdom counteracts ignorance (ajñāna), obtaining mere knowledge. Contemplation-wisdom counteracts lack of right view (adarśana), obtaining right view – merely having right view. Meditation-wisdom counteracts the lack of direct perception (anupalakṣaṇa), obtaining the wisdom of direct perception, thereby enabling direct observation of dharmas. This wisdom is the deepest and can eradicate the most fundamental ignorance in the mind.
Ignorance is broadly divided into six distinctions, from shallow to deep. Of course, shallow ignorance is easy to eradicate, deep ignorance is difficult to eradicate. The shallowest ignorance, ignorance (ajñāna), is eradicated simply by hearing the Dharma; after hearing, one knows. The ignorance of lack of view (adarśana) requires contemplation after hearing the Dharma; after contemplation, one gains right view. The ignorance of lack of direct perception (anupalakṣaṇa) is eradicated during the practice of meditation when meditative concentration (dhyāna) and observational wisdom arise. However, even with the wisdom of direct perception, there remains deeper ignorance in the mind that is not eradicated; it needs to be gradually eliminated through the subsequent practice of realizing dharmas. When the last trace of obscurity of ignorance (avidyāndhakāra) is eradicated, one becomes a Buddha. Therefore, after hearing, contemplation, and meditation, there is the final crucial step of realization (adhigama). If one only hears, contemplates, and meditates without realization, one cannot obtain fundamental wisdom (mūlaprajñā), cannot sever afflictions, cannot exhaust ignorance, and cannot attain liberation. The wisdom obtained through hearing, contemplation, and meditation differs fundamentally from the wisdom obtained through realizing the Dharma; the difference is vast. Without realizing the Dharma, although one can counteract the first three ignorances – ignorance, lack of view, and lack of direct perception – one cannot counteract the three deep ignorances – darkness, stupidity, and obscurity of ignorance. These latter three ignorances lie dormant in the minds of sentient beings, difficult to know and eradicate. Without realization, liberation in either Mahāyāna or Hīnayāna is hopeless.
The wisdom obtained through hearing, based on the manifold hearing of the conscious mind, can only solve the problem of ignorance; knowing the Dharma is merely the initial stage. Many people become conceited merely because they know the Dharma, beginning to look down on others. Some even mistake hearing-wisdom for realization-wisdom, committing the grave karmic transgression of false claims (mahā-mṛṣāvāda). Contemplation-wisdom is a further cognition based on knowing the Dharma, involving mental contemplation of the heard Dharma, giving rise to deeper understanding. But this is still merely inferential and non-valid cognition by the conscious mind; it does not solve the fundamental problem. Some people mistake this shallow contemplation-wisdom for realization-wisdom, commit the grave karmic transgression of false claims, give rise to self-conceit (asmimāna), look down on others, and become people with overestimation (adhimāna).
Meditation-wisdom is much more advanced than hearing-wisdom and contemplation-wisdom. What is meditated upon? The auxiliary path dharmas: the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment (bodhipakṣikā dharma) and the six perfections (pāramitā). One practices morality (śīla), concentration (samādhi), and wisdom (prajñā). During practice, one refrains from evil, cultivates good, subdues afflictions, and increases wisdom. Why does practicing the auxiliary path dharmas increase wisdom? Because by upholding precepts, the mind becomes pure, meditative concentration increases, and within concentration, one can contemplate and think with one-pointedness, directly observing dharmas. Through this observation, understanding of dharmas increases, bringing one closer to seeing the path (darśanamārga) by one or several degrees, but it still does not reach the level of realization. For example, observing the breath: when meditative concentration is relatively good, with the concentration power of the 'access to concentration' (anāgamya-samādhi), observation becomes more effective and clear. One can directly and truly observe the breath, gaining some experiential understanding of the breath dharma, deepening one's understanding of the physical body, and gaining some cognitive wisdom that was previously impossible without direct observation of the breath. However, even at this stage, one has not severed the view of self (satkāyadṛṣṭi). One needs to continue increasing meditative concentration and observational wisdom to sever the view of self, thereby realizing the Dharma and giving birth to realization-wisdom.
Furthermore, some people mistake meditation-wisdom for realization-wisdom, committing the grave karmic transgression of false claims. Sentient beings thus, consciously or unconsciously, misunderstand their own practice and realization. Due to insufficient experience and inability to make accurate judgments and discernments, compounded by the mischief of conceit and self-view, grave false claims are inevitable.
Among the four wisdoms of hearing, contemplation, meditation, and realization, the first part of the third, meditation-wisdom, can be lost, while the latter part cannot be lost. The fourth, realization-wisdom, cannot be lost at all. The first two wisdoms can be lost and are extremely easy to lose. Not only might they be lost in future lives, but even in this life, if conditions for loss are encountered, they can be lost. Therefore, only when one realizes the Buddhadharma oneself does it truly become one's own forever, never to be lost. What is merely heard, even if processed through one's own contemplation and practice, still does not fully become one's own. What is not one's own is easily lost. When wisdom is lost and meditative concentration is also lost, afflictions reappear. Therefore, diligent realization is the fundamental goal in learning Buddhism.
Original Text: What is bodily formation (kāyasaṃskāra)? It is bodily karma, whether in the desire realm or the form realm. In the lower [realm, desire realm], it is called meritorious (puṇya) or non-meritorious (apuṇya). In the upper [realms, form realm], it is called immovable (āniñjya). What is verbal formation (vāksaṃskāra)? It is verbal karma. The rest should be understood as before. What is mental formation (manasaṃskāra)? It is mental karma. In the desire realm, it is called meritorious or non-meritorious. In the upper two realms [form and formless], it is solely called immovable.
Explanation: What is bodily formation? Bodily formation refers to karmic actions created by the body, either actions of the desire realm or actions of the form realm. In the formless realm, there are no bodily formations because formless realm devas have no body. Who creates the karmic actions on the body? It is the mental faculty (manas) that causes the six consciousnesses to create karmic actions on the physical body. In the lower desire realm, one can create meritorious and non-meritorious actions. In the upper form realm, beings create pure, immovable actions because beings in the form realm possess deep meditative concentration; their minds are unmoved by objects, their bodies, being directed, are also unmoved, thus they do not create bodily formations. In the formless realm, there is no body, hence no bodily formations; the mind is also pure and unmoved. Who directs the body? The body is directed by the mental faculty (manas). If the mental faculty is unmoved, the mind-consciousness is unmoved, the body-consciousness is also unmoved, and thus the body does not move.
What is verbal formation? Verbal formation refers to karmic actions created by speech, i.e., speech formations. In the lower desire realm, verbal formations are meritorious or non-meritorious. In the upper form realm, devas have pure minds, possess pure conduct (brahmacarya), are unmoved by objects, and speech, being directed by the mind, becomes pure and unmoved, without verbal formations. In the formless realm, devas have no speech, hence no verbal formations.
What is mental formation? Mental formation here refers to karmic actions created by the mind-consciousness (manovijñāna). The mind-consciousness in the desire realm creates meritorious or non-meritorious actions. In the upper realms, the form and formless realms, it creates immovable actions because the mental faculty is pure and unmoved, the mind-consciousness is pure and unmoved, and the mind-consciousness is dominated by the mental faculty.
Original Text: What is eye-consciousness? It is the consciousness that, in the future, will depend on the eye-faculty and cognize form objects. It is the seed-consciousness (vijñāna) perfumed by all meritorious, non-meritorious, and immovable formations. And it is the resultant consciousness born from those seeds. As with eye-consciousness, so too up to mind-consciousness should be understood likewise. Due to the support [faculty] and the object-field, the distinctions of cognition arise. It should be understood that this [resultant consciousness] is complete with six kinds in the desire realm. In the form realm, there are only four. In the formless realm, there is only one.
Explanation: What is eye-consciousness? Eye-consciousness is the consciousness that can depend on the eye-faculty to cognize form objects. It is the seed-consciousness (ālaya-vijñāna) perfumed by all meritorious, non-meritorious, and immovable formations, and the resultant consciousness born from the seeds within the ālaya-vijñāna. Eye-consciousness is like this; ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness, and up to mind-consciousness are also like this. All are resultant consciousnesses that arise at the location of the supported faculty and the object, giving rise to cognition and distinctions. You should understand that these resultant consciousnesses are of six kinds in the desire realm – the six consciousnesses. In the form realm, there are only four: eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, body-consciousness, and mind-consciousness. In the formless realm, there is only mind-consciousness; there are no first five consciousnesses.
Original Text: What is the feeling aggregate (vedanāskandha)? It is all kinds of sensation. What is the perception aggregate (saṃjñāskandha)? It is all kinds of apprehending images. What is the formation aggregate (saṃskāraskandha)? It is all kinds of intentional mental karma created by the mind. What is the consciousness aggregate (vijñānaskandha)? It is all kinds of cognition. All such aggregates pervade the three realms.
Explanation: What is the feeling aggregate? The feeling aggregate encompasses all kinds of sensation regarding all dharmas: pleasant feeling, painful feeling, and neutral feeling. What is the perception aggregate? The perception aggregate encompasses all kinds of manifesting images of sense objects, i.e., the image-manifesting function of the six consciousnesses (of course, the seventh consciousness also has an image-manifesting function). What is the formation aggregate? The formation aggregate encompasses all kinds of thoughts, mental intentions, and karmic actions created by all mind-consciousnesses, i.e., the volition (cetanā) mental factor of the six consciousnesses (of course, the seventh consciousness also has the volition mental factor and also has formations). What is the consciousness aggregate? The consciousness aggregate encompasses all kinds of cognition regarding all objective dharmas, i.e., the cognition of the six consciousnesses (the seventh consciousness also has cognition). These feeling, perception, formation, and consciousness aggregates all pervade the three realms; they exist in the desire realm, form realm, and formless realm because all have mind-consciousness and also the seventh consciousness. Both consciousnesses have the functional capacities of feeling, perception, formation, and consciousness. In short, the five aggregates of form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness are the functional activities of the consciousness-mind.
Original Text: What are the four great elements (mahābhūta)? They are the earth, water, fire, and wind elements (dhātu). These all pervade two realms [desire and form]. What are the forms created by the four great elements? They are the ten sense-fields of form, and the form included in the mental-object field (dharmāyatana). The desire realm possesses all ten, plus the conceptual form included in the mental-object field. The form realm has eight, plus the form included in the mental-object field, but not all kinds. This also has two kinds: the name-and-form (nāmarūpa) encompassed by the seed-consciousness, called seed name-and-form, and the resultant name-and-form born from that.
Explanation: What are the four great element seeds? The earth, water, fire, and wind elements (dhātu) are the four great element seeds. They pervade the desire realm and form realm; both these realms have material form. The formless realm has no material form, so the four great element seeds do not pervade the formless realm. What material forms can the four great element seeds combine to create? They can create ten kinds of material forms plus the form included in the mental-object field (dharmāyatana), totaling eleven material forms. The desire realm possesses ten material forms: form, sound, smell, taste, touch, eye-faculty, ear-faculty, nose-faculty, tongue-faculty, body-faculty, and the conceptual form (dharmāyatana-rūpa) – a provisional dharma. The form realm has eight material forms: form, sound, touch, eye-faculty, ear-faculty, nose-faculty, tongue-faculty, body-faculty, and the form included in the mental-object field; it lacks smell and taste objects.
However, the four great element seeds do not pervade all dharmas; other dharmas cannot function solely through the four great element seeds; they must function in conjunction with consciousness seeds. There are two kinds of dharmas where the four great element seeds and consciousness seeds function together: The first is the name-and-form in the seed state, encompassed by the consciousness seeds, where the seeds have not yet manifested and name-and-form has not yet arisen; this refers to the causal stage. The second is the resultant body name-and-form born jointly from the four great element seeds and consciousness seeds.
The four great element seeds and consciousness seeds are both major seeds within the ālayavijñāna; they are in a parallel and equal relationship, together constituting the five-aggregate name-and-form. Tangible form (rūpa) is formed by the four great element seeds; intangible name (nāma) is formed by the consciousness seeds.
Original Text: What is the eye-base (cakṣurāyatana)? It is the pure form (rūpa) that is the basis for eye-consciousness. Depending on this, forms are seen in the past, present, and future. As with the eye-base, so too up to the mind-base, according to their respective functions, should be fully understood. For all bases, the functional distinctions of the three times should be spoken of. This also has two kinds: the seed six bases encompassed by the name-and-form seeds, and the resultant six bases born from that. Five [bases] exist in the desire and form realms. The sixth [mind-base] pervades the three realms.
Explanation: What is the eye-base? The eye-base is the pure, supreme (indriya) eye-faculty upon which eye-consciousness arises and operates. Depending on the pure eye-faculty, one can have seeing in the past, present, and future regarding form objects. The eye-base is like this; the ear-base, nose-base, tongue-base, body-base, and up to the mind-base are also like this. Ear-consciousness, depending on the pure ear-faculty, can have hearing in the past, present, and future regarding sound objects; up to mind-consciousness depending on the mental faculty, can have knowing in the past, present, and future regarding the objects of the mental-object field. Wherever the six consciousnesses go to the various sense objects is determined by the choices of the mental faculty. After the mental faculty chooses, the six consciousnesses can arise, and only then can they cognize.
At all pure sense faculties, one should say there are functional distinctions in the three time periods – past, present, and future. These six sense bases are also divided into two kinds. The first is the seed six entrances (ṣaḍāyatana) encompassed by the name-and-form seeds – name-and-form in the seed state. The second is the resultant six bases born from the name-and-form seeds. The first five bases arise in the desire and form realms; they do not arise in the formless realm. The sixth base, the mental faculty, can appear in all three realms.
Original Text: What is eye-contact (cakṣuḥsparśa)? It is born from the coming together of three [factors] and is able to grasp objects of pure, excellent, etc., meaning. The other contacts should be understood likewise, each spoken of according to its specific object. This also has two kinds: the seed-contact encompassed by the six-base seeds, and the resultant-contact born from that. The desire realm possesses six. The form realm has four. The formless realm has one.
Explanation: What is eye-contact? Eye-contact is born from the coming together of the three factors – eye-faculty, form object, and eye-consciousness – and is able to grasp the meaning of pure, excellent form objects. Ear-contact, nose-contact, tongue-contact, body-contact, and mind-contact are also like this; they are also born from the coming together of the three factors – faculty, object, consciousness – and each can grasp the pure, excellent aspect of its respective object, knowing its corresponding object. Contact includes two kinds: The first is seed-contact encompassed by the six-entrance seeds; when the first five entrances are in the seed state and have not arisen, contact cannot arise, and since the mental faculty does not cease, the mind-entrance does not cease, but contact cannot occur on name-and-form. The second is resultant-body-contact induced by the six entrances. In the desire realm, there are six kinds of contact; in the form realm, there are four kinds (no nose-contact or tongue-contact); in the formless realm, there is only mind-contact, no first five contacts.
Original Text: What is pleasant feeling (sukhavedanā)? It is the agreeable feeling born with the condition of faculties and objects concordant with pleasure, encompassed by feeling. What is painful feeling (duḥkhavedanā)? It is the disagreeable feeling born with the condition of two [factors] concordant with pain, encompassed by feeling. What is neutral feeling (aduhkhāsukhavedanā)? It is the feeling neither agreeable nor disagreeable, born with the condition of two [factors] concordant with neutrality, encompassed by feeling. The desire realm has three [feelings]. The form realm has two. From the fourth dhyāna upwards, up to the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception, there is only the third, neutral feeling. This also has two kinds: the seed-feeling encompassed by the contact-seeds, and the resultant-feeling born from that.
Explanation: What is pleasant feeling? Pleasant feeling is the comfortable, joyful feeling born with the condition of the six faculties and objects concordant with pleasure, encompassed by the dharmas of feeling. What is painful feeling? Painful feeling is the non-comfortable, non-joyful feeling born with the condition of the six faculties and objects discordant and concordant with pain, encompassed by the dharmas of feeling. What is neutral feeling? Neutral feeling is the feeling neither comfortable nor uncomfortable, born with the condition of the six faculties and objects concordant with neutrality, encompassed by the dharmas of feeling. In the desire realm, there are three feelings. In the form realm, there are only pleasant and neutral feelings; no painful feeling. From the fourth dhyāna upwards up to the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception, there is only neutral feeling. Neutral feeling also has two kinds: The first is seed-feeling encompassed by the contact-seeds, not yet arisen; the second is resultant-feeling born with the condition of the contact-seeds.
