Exposition on the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination in the Yogācārabhūmi
Section Two The Sequence of Dependent Origination
Original Text: Question: For what reason are the links of existence, beginning with ignorance, explained in such a sequence? Answer: All foolish beings first fail to understand what should be known. Then, regarding what they do not understand, they give rise to unwholesome actions. Because of unwholesome actions, the mind becomes inverted. Because the mind is inverted, rebirth occurs in continuity. Because rebirth continues, the sense faculties become complete. Because the sense faculties are complete, there is the experiencing of objects through the two kinds of reception (i.e., the retribution of the five aggregates as the direct reception and the environment as the circumstantial reception).
Explanation: Question: What causes the twelve links of dependent origination, beginning with ignorance, to be arranged and explained in this order? Answer: All foolish beings first fail to understand what should be known. Then, regarding what they do not understand, they give rise to unwholesome and incorrect actions. Because unwholesome actions are performed, the mind becomes inverted. Because the mind is inverted, the bonds of afflictions cause life to continue without interruption. Because life continues without interruption, the six sense faculties become complete. Because the six sense faculties are complete, there is the experiencing of objects through the direct reception of the five-aggregate body and the circumstantial reception of the living environment.
Original Text: Because objects are experienced, there is either clinging or craving. Because of craving, while seeking in various directions, afflictions increase. Because afflictions increase, actions leading to future existence—whether desirable or undesirable—are initiated. Because of the increasing power of the actions performed, the suffering result arises within the five destinies of birth and death. Once the suffering result arises, there is old age, death, and other sufferings. These sufferings include the suffering of old age and death caused by changes in the internal body, and the suffering of sorrow, lamentation, and mental distress caused by changes in the environment. Therefore, the World-Honored One explained the twelve links in this sequence.
Explanation: Because objects are experienced, one becomes engrossed in them and cannot free oneself, or gives rise to further craving. Because there is craving, afflictions increase during the process of seeking what is desired. Because afflictions increase, actions leading to future existence in the three realms—whether desirable or undesirable—arise. Because of the increasing power of the actions performed, the suffering result arises within the five destinies of the cycle of birth and death. Once the suffering result arises, there is old age, death, and other sufferings. These sufferings are the suffering of old age and death caused by changes in the physical body, and the suffering of sorrow, lamentation, and mental distress caused by changes in the environment. Therefore, the World-Honored One proclaimed the twelve links in this sequence.
Original Text: There is another sequential distinction. It is established based on two kinds of conditions: 1. the condition of the internal body, and 2. the condition of experiencing objects. The condition of the internal body is included in the first six links. The condition of experiencing objects is included in the last six links. First, regarding the internal body, the foolishness of self-view, etc., arises. Because of this foolishness, failing to understand that the karmic actions performed will bring about the suffering result of karmic maturation, one initiates various actions.
Explanation: There is another sequential distinction, referring to the sequence of dependent origination established based on two kinds of conditions: one is the condition of the internal body, i.e., the five-aggregate body; the other is the condition of experiencing objects, i.e., the living environment. The condition of the internal body is encompassed by the first six links: ignorance, formations, consciousness, name-and-form, the six sense bases, and contact. The condition of experiencing objects is encompassed by the last six links: feeling, craving, grasping, existence, birth, and old age and death. Beings first give rise to foolishness such as self-view regarding the internal body. Because of such foolishness, failing to understand that all actions performed by the five-aggregate body will bring about the suffering result of karmic maturation, they initiate all actions.
Here it is said that the first six links pertain to the internal five-aggregate body. Due to ignorance, formations arise, giving rise to name-and-form. On the basis of name-and-form, the six sense bases arise. Once the six sense bases exist, the last six links follow, all pertaining to the objects experienced by the five-aggregate body and also the consequences of contact through the six sense bases. Therefore, the twelve links of dependent origination are established based on the internal body and the experience of objects.
Original Text: Once actions are initiated, numerous thoughts arise following those actions. Because actions and consciousness act as companions, they can induce three kinds of future suffering results: 1. the suffering result pertaining to the initial arising of the sense faculties, 2. the suffering result pertaining to the completion of the sense faculties, and 3. the suffering result pertaining to the experience of objects. These are, respectively, name-and-form first and contact last.
Explanation: Once actions are initiated, thoughts of seeking continuously arise following those actions. Because actions and consciousness act as supporting conditions, they can induce three kinds of future suffering results: 1. the suffering result pertaining to the initial arising of the five sense faculties in the mother's womb, 2. the suffering result pertaining to the five sense faculties after they are complete and one is born, and 3. the suffering result pertaining to the experience of objects. These three suffering results arise under the condition that name-and-form exists first, and finally contact occurs, for the suffering result to manifest.
Original Text: Furthermore, in the present existence, feeling arises dependent on contact as its condition. Craving arises based on feeling. Because of the condition of experiencing objects, extensive pursuit arises—whether through the gate of livelihood, the gate of gain and offerings, the gate of ascetic practices, or the gate of liberation—giving rise to desire for sensual pleasures, desire for the internal body, and desire for wrong liberation. While seeking in this way, the previously arisen afflictions and the actions performed induce the birth of the result of birth and death within the five destinies. Once birth is obtained, old age and death follow.
Explanation: Furthermore, in the presently existing dharmas, dependent on feeling arising from the condition of contact, craving arises. Because of the condition of experiencing objects, extensive pursuit and seeking arise—whether in matters of livelihood, fame and gain, ascetic practices, or liberation from birth and death—giving rise to craving for sensual pleasures, craving for the five-aggregate body, and craving for wrong, non-liberating liberation. While craving in this way, the afflictions previously arisen, along with the karmic actions induced by afflictions, cause the birth of the result of birth and death within the five destinies. Once birth appears, old age and death follow.
Original Text: There is another sequential distinction. There are three kinds of assemblies of sentient beings: 1. those who delight in the purity of transcendence, 2. those who delight in the purity of the world, and 3. those who delight in clinging to objects. Because of the first assembly, all dependent arising ceases, and pure qualities increase. Because of the second assembly of sentient beings, not knowing the truth of the truths as it is, if they abide in right mindfulness, they may perform meritorious actions or perform karmically immovable actions induced by contaminated meditative cultivation. If they do not abide in right mindfulness, they perform non-meritorious actions, which may induce regret or, without regret, joy, causing the mind to abide continuously.
Explanation: There is another sequential distinction involving three assemblies of sentient beings: the first is those who delight in the pure Dharma of transcendence, the second is those who delight in the pure Dharma of the world, and the third is those who delight in clinging to objects. Because of the first assembly, all dharmas of dependent origination cease, and pure, uncontaminated karmic seeds increase. Because of the second assembly, not knowing the principle of the Four Noble Truths as it is, if they can abide in pure right mindfulness, they perform some meritorious actions or perform some contaminated karmically immovable actions induced by cultivation, such as pure meditative concentration reaching the four dhyānas where body and mind are immovable. If sentient beings' minds do not abide in right mindfulness, they perform some non-meritorious actions. Some feel regret after performing non-meritorious actions, while others feel not regret but even joy after performing non-meritorious actions. This causes the mind to abide continuously without cessation.
Original Text: Moreover, as before, due to non-meritorious actions, they are capable of inducing rebirth in lower, middle, and higher places in sequence, thereby inducing the three kinds of suffering results. This is with name-and-form first and contact last. Because of the third assembly of sentient beings, based on feelings born from presently experienced objects, in the present existence, the last six links arise in the same sequence as before: feeling first, old age and death last.
Explanation: These sentient beings, again like before, due to non-meritorious actions, are capable of inducing rebirth in lower, middle, and higher places in sequence. Due to these three rebirth places, they will be accompanied by three corresponding suffering results. In the first six links, name-and-form comes first, and contact comes last; thus the suffering result appears. Without the six sense bases, without contact with the objects of the six dusts, there is no perception and thus no awareness of suffering.
Because of the third assembly of sentient beings, relying on feelings born from presently experienced objects, in the presently existing dharmas, the last six links—feeling, craving, grasping, existence, birth, old age and death—arise in the same sequence as before, with feeling first and old age and death last. (The above explains the sequential contemplation of the twelve links.)
Although the second type of sentient beings delights in worldly purity, due to ignorance of the correct principle of liberation, their minds are still impure. True purity is the purity of wisdom, understanding the truth of the world and seeking truth; only then can there be true purity. Otherwise, even performing wholesome actions is still contaminated, involving afflictions and the suffering of birth and death. The third type, sentient beings who delight in clinging to objects, have heavier ignorance, not knowing that all objects are impermanent, arising and ceasing, illusory. Delighting in objects is delighting in birth and death; being turned by objects, experiencing joy, anger, sorrow, happiness, worry, grief, and distress is truly foolishness.
Original Text: Question: For what reason, in the reverse sequence, is old age and death explained first in the teaching on dependent origination? Answer: It is based on explaining the truth of suffering. Because birth and old age and death can reveal the truth of suffering. As the World-Honored One said, the cessation of new name-and-form is the foremost Dharma.
Explanation: Question: What causes the sequence of dependent origination to be explained with old age and death first in the reverse deduction? Answer: This is based on the principle of the Four Noble Truths taught by the World-Honored One, because birth and old age and death reveal the truth of suffering. Just as the World-Honored One said, the cessation of new name-and-form is the supreme, foremost Dharma. If new name-and-form ceases and does not arise, the problem of old age and death is resolved; without old age and death, there is liberation and nirvana.
Original Text: Question: Why is it not said that the cessation of all ignorance is foremost? Answer: It is established with reference to those whose minds are liberated. Because for them, in the present existence, the seeds of suffering and future suffering results cease without arising. Therefore, it is said that with name-and-form first and feeling last, complete cessation is attained.
Furthermore, in the present existence, when experiencing feelings, craving and its latent tendencies are permanently uprooted and do not arise; this is called cessation. Because of that cessation, with that as the first, the other links also cease. The sequence of dependent origination should be known to be explained in such ways.
Explanation: Question: Why is the cessation of all ignorance not said to be the foremost Dharma in the sequence of dependent origination? Answer: The World-Honored One established the cessation of new name-and-form as the foremost Dharma with reference to those whose minds are liberated. When the mind is liberated, the name-and-form of future lives will not arise again, and old age and death cease. Because name-and-form, in the present existence, the seeds of suffering and future suffering results cease without arising, therefore the reverse sequence of dependent origination is explained with name-and-form first and feeling last; only then can the suffering of birth and death be completely ceased.
Furthermore, in the presently existing dharmas, when experiencing feelings, craving and its latent tendencies can be permanently uprooted and never arise again; this is called the cessation of craving. Because craving ceases, with craving as the first, the other links subsequently cease. One should know that explanations similar to this are for teaching the sequence of dependent origination.
Original Text: Question: Why is dependent origination called "dependent origination"? Answer: Because, bound by afflictions, they repeatedly arise in the various destinies; therefore, it is called dependent origination. This explains the name based on the meaning of the words. Furthermore, relying on various conditions, they quickly cease and then, through the continuity of conditions, arise again in combination; therefore, it is called dependent origination. This explains the name based on the meaning of momentary arising. Furthermore, although the various conditions of the past have ceased, they are not abandoned; relying on their own continuity, they arise again; therefore, it is called dependent origination. As it is said, "Because this exists, that exists; because this arises, that arises," not otherwise. The name should be known to be explained based on this meaning.
Explanation: Question: Why is the Dharma of dependent origination called "dependent origination"? Answer: Because bound by afflictions, beings go to the six destinies, giving rise to the five-aggregate body countless times; therefore, the five-aggregate body is called "dependent origination." This explains the name based on the meaning of the words. Furthermore, the five-aggregate body relies on numerous conditions; after quickly ceasing, it arises again due to the combination of continuously existing conditions; therefore, it is called "dependent origination." This explains the name based on the meaning of momentary arising and ceasing. Furthermore, although the numerous conditions have ceased, the five-aggregate body has not been abandoned; relying on its own continuity condition, it arises again; therefore, it is called "dependent origination." This is what is meant by "because this exists, that exists; because this arises, that arises," not arising due to other causes. One should know that the name is explained based on this meaning.
Original Text: Furthermore, because it repeatedly ceases and arises again in continuity, it is called dependent origination. This explains the name based on the meaning of repeated destruction and cessation. Furthermore, having understood the nature of conditions in the past, it arises again in similar continuity; therefore, it is called dependent origination. As the World-Honored One said, "Having understood, I arise and proclaim." It is precisely because of this name being transmitted successively that it is called dependent origination.
Explanation: Furthermore, the five-aggregate body ceases countless times and arises again countless times in continuity; therefore, it is called "dependent origination." This explains the name based on the meaning of the five-aggregate body being destroyed and ceasing countless times. Furthermore, in past lives, having understood the nature of the dependent arising of the five-aggregate world, a similar type of five-aggregate body arises again in continuity; therefore, it is called "dependent origination." As the World-Honored One said: "Having understood, I rightly arise in the world to proclaim the Dharma of dependent origination." It is precisely because of this name "dependent origination" being transmitted successively that it is called "dependent origination."
Original Text: Question: How many kinds of conditions does ignorance have in relation to formations? Answer: In relation to physical formations, it is a dominant condition. In relation to non-physical formations, it has three conditions: an immediately preceding condition, an object condition, and a dominant condition. How many conditions the other links have in relation to each other should be understood accordingly. That is, a physical link in relation to a physical link has only one dominant condition. In relation to a non-physical link, it has two conditions: an object condition and a dominant condition. A non-physical link in relation to a physical link has only one condition. In relation to a non-physical link, it has three conditions: an immediately preceding condition, an object condition, and a dominant condition.
Explanation: Question: How many kinds of conditions does ignorance have in inducing formations? Answer: Ignorance inducing all physical formations (bodily and verbal formations) has only one condition, a dominant condition. Ignorance inducing non-physical formations (mental formations) has three conditions: an immediately preceding condition, an object condition, and a dominant condition. How many conditions the other links have inducing each other should be understood as follows: A physical link inducing a physical link has only one dominant condition. A physical link inducing a non-physical link has two conditions: an object condition and a dominant condition. A non-physical link inducing a physical link has only one dominant condition. A non-physical link inducing a non-physical link has three conditions: an immediately preceding condition, an object condition, and a dominant condition.
Physical links pertain to body and speech and are the activities of body and speech. Non-physical links pertain to mind and intention and are the activities of mind and intention. Physical links can induce both physical and non-physical links. Non-physical links can also induce both physical and non-physical links. Physical and non-physical links can mutually encompass each other.
Only between non-physical and non-physical links are there three conditions because they all pertain to the mind and mental factors, are of the same category, and can mutually condition and mutually augment each other. Between physical and physical links, there is only a dominant condition; one physical phenomenon promotes the arising of another physical phenomenon. However, a physical link in relation to a non-physical link has two conditions: an object condition and a dominant condition, because the physical phenomenon is the objective aspect (object condition) for the non-physical phenomenon, and the physical phenomenon can also promote the arising of the non-physical phenomenon, hence it is also a dominant condition. A non-physical link in relation to a physical link can only have a dominant condition.
Explanation of the three conditions:
1. Immediately preceding condition (等无间缘) means a condition that is equal in kind and uninterrupted. Mind and mind are equal; mind and mental factors are equal and are minds of the same kind. For example, consciousness and consciousness are immediately preceding conditions to each other; mental faculty (manas) and mental faculty are immediately preceding conditions to each other; eye consciousness and eye consciousness are immediately preceding conditions to each other, etc. Additionally, mental factors and their corresponding consciousness are immediately preceding conditions to each other, or consciousness and its corresponding mental factors are immediately preceding conditions to each other.
However, not all mental factors are immediately preceding conditions to their corresponding consciousness, because mental factors do not always exist everywhere accompanying consciousness. Only mental factors that always accompany consciousness everywhere are immediately preceding conditions to that consciousness. When a mental factor ceases to exist, it is no longer an immediately preceding condition to consciousness. For example, ignorance, contact, or mental application. An immediately preceding condition is not always an immediately preceding condition; it is an immediately preceding condition for a certain period. When ignorance ceases, when consciousness no longer experiences feeling or perception, these mental factors are no longer immediately preceding conditions to consciousness. Ignorance is an object conditioned by consciousness, a dharma possessed by consciousness, corresponding to consciousness, and since beginningless time has always accompanied the operation of consciousness without separation; therefore, ignorance is an immediately preceding condition, an object condition, and a dominant condition to consciousness.
2. Object condition (所缘缘) means that all dharmas are the objective aspect (相分) conditioned by consciousness; this objective aspect is also a condition, called the object condition of consciousness. Object condition is also called the object-field, divided into direct object condition (亲所缘缘) and indirect object condition (疏所缘缘). The direct object condition is the dharma directly perceived by consciousness, the directly corresponding dharma, inseparable from the dharma. The indirect object condition is the dharma indirectly perceived by consciousness, separate from consciousness, not a dharma directly perceived by consciousness. For example, person A's physical body and consciousness are indirect object conditions for person B's consciousness; person B's consciousness can exist separately from person A's five aggregates, and person A's existence or non-existence does not affect the operation of person B's consciousness. Also, for example, the objective realm manifested by the eighth consciousness (ālaya-vijñāna) is an indirect object condition for consciousness; consciousness cannot directly perceive the objective realm but can only perceive the direct perception (性境), reflected perception (带质境), and mental image (独影境) transformed from the objective realm. Consciousness also cannot directly perceive seeds; therefore, seeds are also indirect object conditions for consciousness. Besides these, all are direct object conditions for consciousness.
3. Dominant condition (增上缘) means that this dharma can become the reliance and supporting condition for the arising of another dharma, playing an assisting, supplementary, and promoting role in the production of the other dharma, not a direct and primary role; it is not the primary factor in the arising of the dharma.
Explanation of the three conditions in the twelve links:
In the link from ignorance to formations, ignorance is the ignorance of the mental faculty (manas), a non-physical link; only non-physical consciousness has ignorance; physical dharmas do not involve understanding or ignorance. Because the mental faculty has ignorance, formations arise. Formations are divided into physical formations, such as bodily and verbal formations, and non-physical mental formations. Ignorance is only a dominant condition for physical formations, able to promote the arising, development, and change of physical formations. Physical dharmas are not mental dharmas; they do not have immediately preceding conditions or object conditions; only mental dharmas have immediately preceding conditions and object conditions. Therefore, bodily and verbal formations do not have immediately preceding conditions or object conditions; mental formations have immediately preceding conditions, object conditions, and a dominant condition. Ignorance coexists with the mental faculty without interruption; where there is mental faculty, there is ignorance. The mental faculty conditions ignorance, giving rise to formations. Therefore, ignorance is the object condition for the mental faculty, and the ignorance of the mental faculty can also promote the continuous activity of the six consciousnesses, becoming a dominant condition for formations.
In the link of formations conditioning consciousness, formations cause the six consciousnesses to operate continuously, causing karmic seeds to be left behind. Physical formations are the object condition and dominant condition for the six consciousnesses; non-physical formations are the immediately preceding condition, object condition, and dominant condition for the six consciousnesses. In the link of consciousness conditioning name-and-form, the continuous operation of the six consciousnesses is the dominant condition for the physical body of the next life and the immediately preceding condition, object condition, and dominant condition for the name (feeling, perception, formations, consciousness) of the next life.
The link of name-and-form conditioning the six sense bases is complex. Name is the dominant condition for the first five sense bases and the immediately preceding condition, object condition, and dominant condition for the subsequent mental sense base. Form is the dominant condition for the first five physical sense bases and the object condition and dominant condition for the mental sense base. Because the five physical sense bases are physical dharmas, not consciousness, they do not have immediately preceding conditions or object conditions.
In the link of the six sense bases conditioning contact, the mental sense base is the immediately preceding condition, object condition, and dominant condition for mental contact and the dominant condition for the five sense contacts. The first five physical sense bases are the dominant condition for the five sense contacts and the object condition and dominant condition for mental contact. In the link of contact conditioning feeling, mental contact is the immediately preceding condition, object condition, and dominant condition for the feeling of the six consciousnesses. Where there is feeling, there must be contact; once contact ceases, feeling disappears. The contact of the five sense bases is the object condition and dominant condition for the feeling of the six consciousnesses. The immediately preceding conditions for the feeling of the six consciousnesses are the ālaya-vijñāna, the mental faculty, and the five consciousnesses.
The link of feeling conditioning craving is similar. Feeling is the immediately preceding condition, object condition, and dominant condition for craving. Only by conditioning feeling without interval can there be craving. The object condition for craving is feeling; without feeling, there is no craving. Feeling can increase and induce craving. The feeling of the five consciousnesses and the feeling of the mental consciousness are both unified at the mental faculty; the craving and grasping of the five consciousnesses and the mental consciousness are also unified at the mental faculty. Feeling is controlled by the mental faculty; therefore, it is ultimately the feeling, craving, and grasping of the mental faculty.
The link of craving conditioning grasping is also similar. Craving is the immediately preceding condition, object condition, and dominant condition for grasping. Grasping conditions craving without interval; without craving, there is no grasping. The object condition for grasping is craving; craving can increase grasping. In the link of grasping conditioning existence, grasping is only the dominant condition for existence, not an immediately preceding condition or object condition. In the link of existence conditioning birth, existence is the dominant condition for the birth of the physical body and the object condition and dominant condition for the birth of the name (mental aggregates), not an immediately preceding condition. The immediately preceding conditions for birth are the ālaya-vijñāna, the mental faculty, and the karmic seeds of the six consciousnesses. In the link of birth conditioning old age and death, the birth of the physical body is the dominant condition for old age and death, not an immediately preceding condition or object condition. The birth of the name (mental aggregates) is the immediately preceding condition, object condition, and dominant condition for old age and death.
Original Text: Question: Why is there no cause condition (因缘) among the links in relation to each other? Answer: Cause condition is revealed by the seed condition of the own-nature. Question: If there is no cause condition among the links in relation to each other, why is it said that dependent origination is established based on the nature of cause and effect? Answer: Because it relies on the inducing cause, the projecting cause, and the producing cause, which are included within the dominant condition; therefore, they are spoken of as causes.
Explanation: Question: Why is there no cause condition among these links conditioning each other? Answer: The so-called cause condition is revealed by the seed condition of the own-nature of the links. Question: Since these links mutually condition and induce each other, if there is no cause condition, why is it said that dependent origination is established based on the nature of cause and effect? (The nature of cause and effect is that the prior cause can produce the subsequent effect; the effect is the dharmas of dependent origination.) Answer: These links rely on what is encompassed by the dominant condition; the prior link is the inducing cause, projecting cause, and producing cause of the subsequent link; conventionally spoken of as the cause, and the subsequent link is the effect. Therefore, it is said that dependent origination is established based on the nature of cause and effect.
Cause condition is the most important among the four conditions; it is the direct cause producing dharmas. Seeds belong to cause conditions; seeds are in the cause position, and the eleven links (except ignorance) are in the effect position. Where there is cause, there must be effect. "Condition" also means cause; it is the seeds that induce the arising of the eleven links. Seeds refer to the karmic seeds left by the bodily, verbal, and mental actions of the six consciousnesses. This meaning is very profound. The seeds that can produce the own-nature of these links all come from the ālaya-vijñāna and reside within it. In other words, these links are all produced by the ālaya-vijñāna; the ālaya-vijñāna and the own-nature seeds are the cause conditions of these links.
Within the twelve links of dependent origination, only the birth of name-and-form in the link of consciousness conditioning name-and-form has seeds; the seeds of the bodily, verbal, and mental actions of the six consciousnesses of the previous life are the cause condition for the birth of name-and-form in this life. The birth of the subsequent links after name-and-form has no seeds; each link is induced by the prior link. That is, the prior link is the dominant condition, or immediately preceding condition, or object condition for the subsequent link, but there is no seed cause condition. The same applies to ignorance conditioning formations and formations conditioning consciousness; there is no seed cause condition, only immediately preceding condition, object condition, and dominant condition. However, broadly speaking, the arising and operation of the latter eleven links in the twelve links of dependent origination are not without seeds; they are all constrained by certain karmic seeds and also encompassed by the seven great seeds.
Original Text: Question: How many links are included in the projecting cause? Answer: From ignorance up to feeling. Question: How many links are included in the producing cause? Answer: From craving up to existence. Question: How many links are included in the result of both the projecting and producing causes? Answer: Within the present and future existences, the links from consciousness up to feeling pertain to the result of the projecting cause. Within the state of birth, old age, and death, the links pertain to the result of the producing cause.
Explanation: Question: How many of the twelve links are included in the projecting cause? Answer: Ignorance conditioning formations, formations conditioning consciousness, consciousness conditioning name-and-form, name-and-form conditioning the six sense bases, the six sense bases conditioning contact, contact conditioning feeling—these seven links are included in the projecting cause; they can induce the subsequent link. Question: How many links are included in the producing cause? Answer: Feeling conditioning craving, craving conditioning grasping, grasping conditioning existence—these three links are included in the producing cause; they can produce the link of birth and the link of old age and death. Question: How many links are included in the result of both the projecting and producing causes? Answer: In the presently existing dharmas and the dharmas arising in future lives, the four links—consciousness conditioning name-and-form, name-and-form conditioning the six sense bases, the six sense bases conditioning contact, contact conditioning feeling—in relation to the link of birth and old age and death, are included in the result of both the projecting and producing causes.
Ignorance can induce formations but cannot produce formations. "Induce" means to guide; it is a supporting, dominant condition. "Produce" means to directly give birth. Ignorance has no substance, no mind, no seeds; it cannot produce formations. It can only act as an inducement for the ālaya-vijñāna to produce formations; without this inducement, the ālaya-vijñāna cannot produce formations. Formations are the projecting cause of the six consciousnesses (karmic seeds), not the direct cause producing the six consciousnesses (karmic seeds). Formations have no own-nature and no seeds; therefore, they cannot produce the six consciousnesses (karmic seeds). It is the ālaya-vijñāna that, relying on formations, produces the six consciousnesses (karmic seeds). The karmic seeds of the six consciousnesses are the cause condition for name-and-form; they cannot directly produce name-and-form. It is the ālaya-vijñāna, relying on the condition of the karmic seeds of the six consciousnesses' actions, that produces name-and-form. The actions performed by the six consciousnesses leave behind seeds that can induce the name-and-form of future lives.
Name-and-form is the projecting cause of the six sense bases; it cannot directly produce the six sense bases. It is the ālaya-vijñāna, relying on name-and-form, that produces the six sense bases. Among them, the mental sense base originally exists; it is not newly produced by the ālaya-vijñāna. The six sense bases are the projecting cause of contact; they can induce contact but cannot directly produce contact. Because the six sense bases have no own-nature and no seeds, they cannot produce contact. It is the ālaya-vijñāna, relying on the six sense bases as the projecting cause, that produces contact. Contact is the projecting cause of feeling; it can induce feeling but cannot directly produce feeling. Because contact has no own-nature, is not consciousness, and has no seeds, it is the ālaya-vijñāna, relying on contact, that produces feeling.
The three links of craving, grasping, and existence are the producing cause of the birth and old age and death links of future lives. Without craving, grasping, and existence, the five-aggregate body would cease, entering parinirvāṇa, with no birth, old age, or death. Therefore, the three links of craving, grasping, and existence are the producing cause of the links of future lives.
Original Text: Question: If it is said that ignorance arises due to unwise attention as its cause, why is unwise attention not mentioned first in the teaching on dependent origination? Answer: Because it is merely a perpetuating cause, not a defiling cause. Why? Because it is not non-foolish beings who give rise to this attention. The teaching on dependent origination is explained based on defiling causes. The nature of ignorance itself is defiled; the nature of unwise attention itself is not defiled. Therefore, it cannot defile ignorance; rather, it is defiled by the power of ignorance. Furthermore, the initial cause for initiating defiled actions is the first link of dependent origination. Therefore, unwise attention is not mentioned.
Explanation: Question: If it is said that ignorance arises due to unwise attention as its cause, why is unwise attention not mentioned first in the teaching on dependent origination, but ignorance is directly mentioned? Answer: Unwise attention is only the cause for the Dharma of dependent origination not ceasing; it is not the defiling cause of the three natures (wholesome, unwholesome, neutral). Why is this so? Because it is precisely those foolish beings with ignorance who give rise to unwise attention; without ignorance, unwise attention would not arise. Therefore, ignorance comes first; the teaching on dependent origination is explained based on defiling afflictions as causes.
The own-nature of ignorance is defiled and afflicted, while the own-nature of unwise attention is not defiled or afflicted. Therefore, unwise attention cannot defile ignorance but can be defiled by ignorance. Furthermore, because the arising of defiled actions is influenced by the power of afflictions, which is the power of ignorance, the initial cause for the arising of defiled actions is the first link of dependent origination. Therefore, unwise attention is not mentioned first.
Original Text: Question: Why is the self not said to be the condition for the self? Answer: Because if the self does not obtain other conditions, the defilement of the self can neither increase nor decrease; therefore, it is not said. Question: For what reason, although meritorious actions and immovable actions arise due to the power of correct discrimination, are they still said to have ignorance as their condition? Answer: Because, due to not understanding the cause of worldly suffering, non-meritorious actions arise. Due to not understanding the cause of suffering in the ultimate sense, meritorious and immovable actions arise. Therefore, it is also said that they have ignorance as their condition.
Explanation: Question: Why is the self not said to be the condition for the self? Answer: If there is only the self, without any other conditions, the defilement of the self neither increases nor decreases; therefore, the self is not said to be the condition for the self. For example, ignorance, without other conditions, will not increase or decrease by itself. The five aggregates need to encounter wholesome or unwholesome conditions and be influenced to increase or decrease ignorance.
Question: For what reason, although meritorious actions and immovable actions (pure actions involving neither merit nor demerit) arise due to the power of correctly discerning dharmas, are they still said to arise conditioned by ignorance? Answer: Because, due to failing to fully understand that the cause of worldly suffering is the condition of greed, hatred, and delusion, non-meritorious actions are performed. Due to failing to fully understand the cause of suffering in the ultimate sense—ignorance as the condition—meritorious and immovable actions are performed. Therefore, it is said that these three kinds of actions all arise conditioned by ignorance.
The above passage means that sentient beings, because they do not fully understand worldly suffering, perform unwholesome actions that diminish merit. Because they do not fully understand the principle of emptiness revealed by the ultimate truth, they perform wholesome actions that increase worldly merit and immovable actions that are neither wholesome nor unwholesome. Sentient beings perform meritorious wholesome actions for the sake of worldly conditioned enjoyment, not for the pure path of transcendence; this is ignorance. Sentient beings also, because they fail to understand the principle of emptiness revealed by the ultimate truth, perform immovable actions that are neither wholesome nor unwholesome, such as the pure meditative concentration practiced by non-Buddhists, entering concentration with a single mind, performing neither wholesome nor unwholesome actions in the world, neither increasing nor decreasing worldly merit. This is also due to ignorance of what constitutes liberation; it is also attachment to the conditioned actions of worldly concentration, similarly binding one to the suffering of birth and death, unable to attain liberation.
Sages who understand the ultimate truth of emptiness have destroyed ignorance; their minds are unconditioned, signless, non-active, and wishless. They do not perform actions to increase merit, diminish merit, or remain immovable for worldly benefit. Even if they perform meritorious actions, it is for the sake of the Buddha path of transcendence and the benefit of sentient beings. Therefore, sages do not seek worldly fame, gain, wealth, sensual pleasures, sleep, do not create momentum for great reputation, do not seek power and status, do not compete for benefits with sentient beings, and do not hope to be revered. Instead, they see the five-aggregate world as empty, their minds utterly free from seeking and attaining. If the opposite is true, it indicates the mind is not empty, not understanding the ultimate truth of emptiness; then they are not sages.
Original Text: Question: As the sutra says, all actions arise conditioned by greed, hatred, and delusion. Why here is only delusion said to be the condition? Answer: Here it comprehensively explains the condition for meritorious, non-meritorious, and immovable actions. Greed, hatred, and delusion condition only the arising of non-meritorious actions.
Explanation: Question: As said in the sutras, all actions performed by sentient beings arise conditioned by greed, hatred, and delusion. Why here is only ignorance said to be the condition? Answer: Here, the conditions for meritorious actions, non-meritorious actions, and immovable actions are all comprehensively explained as conditioned by ignorance. Conditioned by greed, hatred, and delusion, only non-meritorious unwholesome actions can arise.
Conditioned by the afflictions of greed, hatred, and delusion, one will inevitably perform non-meritorious unwholesome actions; one will not perform meritorious wholesome actions or pure immovable actions. Conditioned by ignorance, all three kinds of actions can be performed; it is not limited to non-meritorious unwholesome actions, because many people perform wholesome actions due to ignorance, because they do not understand worldly suffering and emptiness and cling to existence while performing wholesome actions; although wholesome, it is still ignorance.
Original Text: Question: Bodily and verbal actions are initiated by volition. Thus, formations also condition formations. Why then is it only said that ignorance conditions formations? Answer: Because it is explained based on the condition that initiates all actions, and based on the condition that gives rise to wholesome and defiled volition.
Explanation: Question: Bodily and verbal actions are initiated by the volition (cetanā) of the mental faculty. Therefore, it is said that formations also condition bodily and verbal formations. Why is it only said that ignorance conditions formations? Answer: This is explained based on the condition that initiates all actions, including the formations (volition) of the mental faculty; all formations arise due to ignorance. The volition of the mental faculty operates because there is ignorance, leading to the production of bodily and verbal formations. It is also explained based on the condition that gives rise to wholesome and defiled volition; the conditions giving rise to wholesome volition and defiled volition are both ignorance. Therefore, it is said that ignorance conditions formations, not that the volition of formations conditions bodily and verbal formations.
Original Text: Question: Consciousness also has name-and-form as its condition. Why here is only formation said to be its condition? Answer: Formations are the defiling condition for consciousness, capable of inducing and producing the result of future existence. They are not like name-and-form, which is merely the supporting and objective condition for arising.
Explanation: Question: The six consciousnesses also arise conditioned by name-and-form. Why here is it only said that the six consciousnesses are conditioned by bodily, verbal, and mental formations? Answer: Bodily, verbal, and mental formations are the defiling condition for the six consciousnesses' wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral seeds. Defiled seeds, or defiled six consciousnesses, can induce and produce the karmic result of name-and-form in future lives. Therefore, bodily, verbal, and mental formations are the condition for the six consciousnesses, inducing the arising of karmic seeds. Unlike name-and-form, which is merely the supporting dominant condition for the arising of the six consciousnesses, formations are the object condition for the six consciousnesses, directly causing the arising of karmic seeds.
Formations conditioning consciousness: if bodily, verbal, and mental formations are defiled, the six consciousnesses are defiled, having defiled seeds and future defiled results. But bodily, verbal, and mental formations are the bodily, verbal, and mental formations of the six consciousnesses; without the six consciousnesses, there are no bodily, verbal, and mental formations. Therefore, bodily, verbal, and mental formations do not produce the six consciousnesses but induce the karmic seeds created by the six consciousnesses, i.e., induce the defiling condition of the six consciousnesses. Why are bodily, verbal, and mental formations defiled? Because the mental formations of the mental faculty are defiled; therefore, the bodily, verbal, and mental formations induced by the mental faculty are defiled, the six consciousnesses are defiled, and the seeds and results are defiled. Once the defiled result of name-and-form is born, the six consciousnesses will arise relying on the defiled name-and-form. Name-and-form is the supporting dominant condition for the arising of the six consciousnesses, not the inducing condition.
Original Text: Question: Name-and-form also arises due to the great elements and contact. Why then is only consciousness said to be its condition? Answer: Because consciousness can be its newly arising cause. Once it has arisen or while arising, the great elements and contact can only act as its establishing causes.
Explanation: Question: Name-and-form is also created by the seven great elements and arises due to the condition of contact. At conception, there is mental contact; at birth, there is contact at the six sense bases. Why here is it only said that name-and-form arises conditioned by the six consciousnesses? Answer: The six consciousnesses can act as the cause condition for the new arising of name-and-form. After name-and-form arises, or while it is arising, the great elements of earth, water, fire, wind, space, consciousness, and ignorance, and contact, can only act as establishing, continuing, and changing conditions for name-and-form becoming the five aggregates. The two kinds of conditions function differently before and after the arising of name-and-form. From the important perspective of the inducing condition, consciousness is said to condition name-and-form; therefore, the great elements and contact are not said to be conditions for the arising of name-and-form.
Original Text: Question: As the sutra says, entry into the mother's womb occurs conditioned by the six elements. Why here is only the element of consciousness mentioned? Answer: If the element of consciousness exists, then within the mother's womb, the great elements of semen and blood, and the bodily cavities, are definitely not lacking. Furthermore, because the element of consciousness is superior. Also, because it is explained based on all births and all existence at the time of birth.
Explanation: Question: As said in the sutras, conditioned by the six elements of earth, water, fire, wind, space, and consciousness, one can enter the mother's womb. Why here is only the element of consciousness said to be the condition for entering the womb? Answer: If the element of the ālaya-vijñāna exists in the mother's womb, there will definitely be the semen and blood composed of the five great elements required by the fetus, pervading the body, internal organs, and seven apertures, without lack. Therefore, it is said that name-and-form arises conditioned by the element of the ālaya-vijñāna. Furthermore, because the element of the ālaya-vijñāna is mental, the most superior among all dharmas, it is said that one enters the womb conditioned by the ālaya-vijñāna. Also, because it is explained based on the arising of all dharmas and the arising of all existence, the ālaya-vijñāna is the most superior, the direct cause condition for entering the womb and the arising of name-and-form.
The element of consciousness that can enter the womb must be the ālaya-vijñāna, not the six consciousnesses, because upon entering the womb the six consciousnesses cease. Initially, there are no six consciousnesses in the womb, but there is the ālaya-vijñāna. Moreover, the physical form of the fertilized egg in the womb is produced by the ālaya-vijñāna giving rise to the great elements of earth, water, fire, wind, and space to produce, change, and sustain it. The seventh consciousness in the womb requires the ālaya-vijñāna to provide consciousness seeds to maintain it. Therefore, the element of consciousness that can enter the womb is the ālaya-vijñāna; the elements of earth, water, fire, wind, and space are not mentioned, because where there is the ālaya-vijñāna, there will be the great elements of earth, water, fire, wind, and space.
Original Text: Question: The six sense bases also have food and drink as their condition. Why here is only name-and-form said to be their condition? Answer: Here name-and-form is said to be their arising cause. Once they have arisen, food and drink also act as their sustaining cause.
Explanation: Question: The eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind sense bases also arise conditioned by food and drink. With food and drink, name-and-form grows, and the five sense bases among the six sense bases also grow accordingly. Why here is it only said that the six sense bases arise conditioned by name-and-form? Answer: Here it is said that name-and-form is the cause condition for the arising of the six sense bases. The six sense bases arise directly on the basis of name-and-form; without name-and-form, the six sense bases cannot exist. In the womb, the initial "name" is the mental sense base; the five sense bases gradually arise on the basis of the physical form of the fertilized egg. Therefore, name-and-form is the cause condition for the arising of the six sense bases. After the six sense bases arise, food and drink also act as the sustaining condition for the six sense bases. Therefore, food and drink are not said to be the cause condition for the arising of the six sense bases.
Original Text: Question: Contact has the threefold combination as its condition. Why here is only the six sense bases said to be its condition? Answer: If the six sense bases exist, the other two are definitely present without lack. Furthermore, because the six sense bases are superior. Because the six sense bases encompass the two kinds.
Explanation: Question: Contact arises conditioned by the combination of three factors: sense faculty, object, and consciousness. Why here is it only said that contact arises conditioned by the six sense bases? Answer: If the six sense bases exist, the other two—the six objects and the six consciousnesses—will definitely appear; they will not be lacking. Therefore, the six sense bases are used to represent them. Furthermore, among the three, the six sense bases are superior to the six objects and the six consciousnesses; they play a decisive role in the threefold combination. Therefore, the six sense bases encompass the six objects and the six consciousnesses; thus, it is said that contact arises conditioned by the six sense bases.
Original Text: Question: Whether due to self-affliction, affliction by others, changes in time, or the influence of past actions, feeling can arise. Why here is only contact shown as its condition? Answer: Because contact is its proximate cause. Because feeling is induced by contact. Feelings arising from other conditions also arise from contact. Feeling necessarily does not arise apart from contact; therefore, it is exclusively mentioned.
Explanation: Question: If afflicted by internal causes, or afflicted by external forces, or due to changes in season and climate, or due to actions performed in past lives, these conditions can all give rise to feeling. Why here is it only shown that feeling arises conditioned by contact? Answer: Because contact is the proximate condition for the arising of feeling (others are distant conditions); feeling is induced by contact. Feelings arising from other conditions also arise from the condition of contact. Without contact, even with other conditions, feeling would not arise. The arising of feeling necessarily cannot be separated from contact; therefore, contact is exclusively said to be the condition for feeling.
Original Text: Question: The sutra also says that craving arises conditioned by ignorance. Objects that accord with craving can also be conditions. Why here is only feeling said to be the condition? Answer: Because of the power of feeling, regarding similar objects, one either seeks union or seeks separation. Due to the power of foolishness, not knowing the arising and ceasing, etc., of feelings as they are, one cannot control the mind.
Explanation: Question: The sutras also say that craving arises conditioned by ignorance; ignorance is the condition for craving. Objects that accord with and induce craving are also conditions for craving; they can also give rise to craving. Why here is only feeling said to be the condition for craving? Answer: Because of the power of the condition of feeling, when facing objects similar to what is real, one either seeks union with the object (because there is pleasant feeling) or seeks to avoid and escape the object (because there is painful feeling). Due to the power of the condition of foolishness, not knowing the arising and ceasing, etc., of feelings as they are, one cannot subdue the mind, thus giving rise to craving. Therefore, it is said that feeling is the condition for craving.
Original Text: Question: Because latent tendencies are not severed, objects that accord with them can all give rise to grasping. Why here is only craving said to be the condition for grasping? Answer: Because it arises from hope. While pursuing, it can activate the latent tendencies and induce what accords with them.
Explanation: Question: Because latent defilements are not severed, one accords with the latent defilements, thus giving rise to grasping for all dharmas. But why here is only craving said to be the condition for the arising of grasping? Answer: Because there is hope for the desired objects. While pursuing the desired objects, one can activate the latent defilements within the mind and also induce the mind to accord with the latent defilements. Therefore, the condition for the arising of grasping is craving, not latent defilements.
Latent tendencies (随眠) mean that when afflictions are not severed, they always exist as seeds hidden in the ālaya-vijñāna, or lie dormant in the ālaya-vijñāna. When conditions mature, the afflictions manifest. However, afflictions also follow the mental faculty, accompanying the mental faculty. When conditions mature, the mental faculty accords with the afflictions, manifesting afflictions, and actions follow. Craving is also a kind of affliction; it is because of craving that grasping arises. Hatred, another affliction, is aversion, not accordance or grasping; therefore, it is said that craving conditions grasping, not that afflictions condition grasping.
Original Text: Question: Previously, it was said that existence arises conditioned by ignorance. Why now is it said that existence arises conditioned by grasping? Answer: Because of the power of grasping, those actions are caused to induce the results of consciousness, name-and-form, etc., in various places of rebirth. Question: Birth also has semen and blood, etc., as its conditions. Why here is only existence said to be the condition for birth? Answer: Because existence exists, other conditions are definitely present without lack. Furthermore, because existence is superior, only it is said to be the condition.
Explanation: Question: Previously, it was said that conditioned by ignorance, the three existences of karmic results arise. Why now is it said that the three existences arise conditioned by grasping? Answer: Because of the power of the condition of grasping, the performed karmic actions will cause rebirth in various realms, after which they can induce the results of the six consciousnesses, name-and-form, etc. Therefore, it is said that grasping conditions existence.
Question: A living being also requires father's semen, mother's blood, etc., as conditions to be born. Why here is it only said that the three existences are the condition for the arising of the living being? Answer: Because the three existences exist, other conditions necessary for the birth of the living being will definitely be satisfied. Therefore, it is said that existence conditions birth. Furthermore, because the three existences are the most superior among all conditions, only the three existences are said to be the condition for birth.
Original Text: Question: Old age and death can also occur due to conditions such as long journeys, encountering dangers, or being afflicted by others. Why here is only birth said to be the condition for old age and death? Answer: Although due to those various conditions, birth is necessarily the root cause. Even lacking those conditions, as long as birth exists, old age and death definitely exist.
Explanation: Question: The phenomenon of old age and death can also occur because the living being, during a long journey, before the lifespan naturally ends, due to failing to avoid sudden external conditions, is afflicted by external forces, causing the lifespan to terminate prematurely. Why here is it only said that birth is the condition for the occurrence of old age and death? Answer: Although there are many conditions causing old age and death, old age and death necessarily take birth as the fundamental condition. Even without other conditions, as long as birth exists, old age and death will definitely occur. When there is no birth, no matter how many conditions exist, the phenomenon of old age and death will not occur. Therefore, it is said that birth is the condition for old age and death.
