Exposition on the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination in the Yogācārabhūmi

Section Three   Detailed Classification of the Twelve Links

Original Text: Question: Among these twelve links, how many belong to the path of afflictions? How many belong to the path of karma? How many belong to the path of suffering? Answer: Three belong to the path of afflictions. Two belong to the path of karma. The remainder belong to the path of suffering.

Explanation: Question: Among these twelve links of dependent origination, how many belong to the path of afflictions? How many belong to the path of karma? How many belong to the path of suffering? Answer: Three links belong to the path of afflictions, two links belong to the path of karma, and the remaining links belong to the path of suffering.

The links of the path of afflictions include ignorance (avidyā), which can induce afflictive karma. The three links of ignorance, craving (tṛṣṇā), and grasping (upādāna) belong to the path of afflictions. The link of ignorance is an affliction that produces defiled bodily, verbal, and mental actions and karmic seeds. The link of craving is an affliction that produces clinging, causing the continuous arising of future karmic results. The link of grasping is an affliction that leads to the birth of defiled karmic results in future lives, perpetuating the cycle of birth and death. The path of karma refers to the links that create karmic actions. The two links of volitional formations (saṃskāra) and consciousness (vijñāna) constitute the path of karma. The link of volitional formations creates bodily, verbal, and mental karma. The link of consciousness plants the seeds for the suffering of birth, death, and karmic results. The path of suffering refers to the links that involve suffering. The seven links of name-and-form (nāmarūpa), the six sense bases (ṣaḍāyatana), contact (sparśa), feeling (vedanā), becoming (bhava), birth (jāti), and aging-and-death (jarāmaraṇa) all belong to the path of suffering, as they all involve suffering and painful results.

Original Text: Question: How many are exclusively causes? How many are exclusively effects? How many pertain to both cause and effect? Answer: The first is exclusively a cause. The last is exclusively an effect. The rest pertain to both cause and effect. Furthermore, regarding this question, another answer can be given: Three are exclusively causes. Two are exclusively effects. It should be understood that the remaining links are both causes and effects.

Explanation: Question: Among the twelve links, how many are exclusively causes? How many are exclusively effects? How many pertain to both cause and effect? Answer: The first link, ignorance, pertains exclusively to cause. The last link, aging-and-death, pertains exclusively to effect. The remaining intermediate links pertain to both cause and effect. There is another answer to this question: three links are exclusively causes—ignorance, volitional formations, and consciousness; two links are exclusively effects—birth and aging-and-death; the remaining seven links—name-and-form, six sense bases, contact, feeling, craving, grasping, and becoming—pertain to both cause and effect.

Regarding the first answer: Only ignorance is the cause for the arising of the cycle of birth and death; it is the cause for the arising of the subsequent eleven links. There is no cause that gives rise to ignorance itself, so ignorance is not an effect. The final link, aging-and-death, can only be an effect; the preceding eleven links are all causes for the arising of aging-and-death. After aging-and-death, there are no subsequent links, so it does not produce any further effect. Regarding the second answer: Three links are exclusively causes, not effects—ignorance, volitional formations, and consciousness. The functioning of these three links directly leads to the birth of the name-and-form result in the next life. Thus, these three are causes from the previous life. The links from name-and-form to grasping are the effects in the present life, connecting the causes of the previous life with the effects of the present life. The functioning of the links from name-and-form to grasping, as well as becoming in the future life, are causes, while birth and aging-and-death in the future life are effects. In this way, the causes and effects connect across three lifetimes: the present life is the effect of the previous life and the cause of the future life, thus pertaining to both cause and effect. The future life is only an effect, not a cause.

Original Text: Question: How many are exclusively defiled? How many are mixed? Answer: Three are exclusively defiled. Volitional formations, etc., are mixed. Question: Why do volitional formations, etc., have a mixed nature? Answer: Because, according to one explanation, they can induce both desirable and undesirable results, and they can give rise to distinctions among the realms of rebirth.

Explanation: Question: Among the twelve links, how many have an exclusively defiled nature? How many have a mixed nature? Answer: Three links have an exclusively defiled nature: ignorance, craving, and grasping—these are purely afflictive and defiled, without any pure or mixed nature. The links of volitional formations, consciousness, name-and-form, six sense bases, contact, feeling, grasping, becoming, birth, aging-and-death, etc., are of a mixed nature. "Mixed" means that these links contain wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral (non-defined) natures, capable of inducing wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral results. Question: What is the reason that volitional formations and other links have such a mixed nature? Answer: One explanation is that volitional formations and other links can induce both desirable and undesirable results, and they can lead to distinctions among the six realms of rebirth. Therefore, volitional formations and other links are said to have a mixed nature.

"Exclusively defiled" means purely defiled, not mixed with purity. "Mixed" means a mixture of defiled and pure natures. Among the twelve links, only the afflictive links—ignorance, craving, and grasping—are exclusively defiled and impure. The remaining links are of a mixed nature, containing both defiled and pure aspects. These links can induce desirable, pure, ripened results and undesirable, defiled, ripened results, leading to the different karmic results of the six realms.

For example, the link of volitional formations, consciousness, and name-and-form involve wholesome bodily, verbal, and mental actions, unwholesome defiled bodily, verbal, and mental actions, and neutral bodily, verbal, and mental actions. These actions condition the six consciousnesses into wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral types, generating three kinds of seeds. In future lives, there will be three kinds of ripened results and three kinds of name-and-form aggregates (resultant bodies). Since name-and-form is of a mixed nature, the six sense bases born from name-and-form are also mixed, and contact and feeling born from them are likewise mixed. The links of becoming, birth, and aging-and-death, which follow the afflictive links of craving and grasping, are also mixed, all divided into wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral aspects.

Original Text: Question: Why is it said that consciousness, name-and-form, and the six sense bases are partially mixed? Answer: Because of three explanations: based on the time of defilement, based on the time of moistening, and based on the time of manifestation.

Explanation: Question: Why is it said that consciousness, name-and-form, and the six sense bases are partially of a mixed nature? Answer: There are three explanations: One explanation is that when name-and-form and the six sense bases involve defiled bodily, verbal, and mental actions, it indicates that consciousness is defiled. Therefore, name-and-form and the six sense bases share a partially mixed nature with consciousness. Another explanation is that when the seeds of the six consciousnesses are moistened by craving and grasping, they give rise to name-and-form and the six sense bases in the future life, and these incorporate aspects of consciousness, so name-and-form and the six sense bases share a partially mixed nature with consciousness. A third explanation is that when name-and-form is being produced, it inherently contains aspects of consciousness, so name-and-form and the six sense bases share a partially mixed nature with consciousness.

Original Text: Question: Why do consciousness up to feeling share a mixed nature with aging-and-death? Answer: Because of two explanations: to distinctly reveal the characteristic of suffering, and to reveal the distinctions in what is induced.

Explanation: Question: Why do the links from consciousness to feeling share a defiled nature with the link of aging-and-death? Answer: There are two explanations: One explanation is that the links of consciousness, name-and-form, six sense bases, contact, and feeling, etc., can distinctly reveal the suffering characteristic of aging-and-death. Another explanation is that the links from consciousness up to feeling reveal distinctions in the resultant life-form. Since the life-form has distinctions, aging-and-death also has distinctions. Therefore, consciousness and other links share a defiled nature.

The links from consciousness to feeling all contain the characteristic of suffering because they are the experiencing aggregates, and since defiled karma is predominant, suffering is inevitably present in these links. The link of aging-and-death is particularly characterized by suffering. Hence, consciousness and other links share a defiled nature with aging-and-death. Furthermore, the defilement of consciousness in the previous life differs, leading to differences in the name-and-form to feeling links in the present life. Differences in the name-and-form to feeling links in the present life lead to differences in the aging-and-death link in the future life. Therefore, the links from consciousness to feeling share a defiled nature with the aging-and-death link.

Original Text: Furthermore, within dependent origination, what is the meaning of "repeatedly going"? It means the meaning of not abiding after birth. What is the meaning of "coming together"? It means the gathering of various conditions.

Explanation: Within the twelve links of dependent origination, what is meant by "repeatedly going"? This means that after name-and-form is born within the cycle of the six realms, it does not permanently abide in one type of body but undergoes continuous rebirth and death, revolving repeatedly. What is the meaning of "coming together"? "Coming together" means that the conditions upon which a phenomenon arises have all gathered together; when the causes and conditions are complete, the phenomenon arises.

"Repeatedly" means continuously, many times over. After sentient beings are born in one of the six realms, they do not remain there forever. Due to the karma created in previous lives and the karma created in the present life, when the karma changes, they will leave that realm upon death and be reborn in another realm. For countless eons, they revolve in the six realms in this way. Because unwholesome karma far outweighs wholesome karma, sentient beings spend the vast majority of time reborn in the three lower realms. After each birth, due to the continuous presence of ignorance, sentient beings constantly create defiled karma in accordance with the twelve links of dependent origination, leading to continuous future lives without escaping the cycle of the six realms. For name-and-form to be born each time, all necessary conditions must be fully gathered together; if one condition is missing, name-and-form does not arise. The conditions required for the birth of name-and-form are generally of four types: the causal condition (hetu-pratyaya), the immediate antecedent condition (samanantara-pratyaya), the object condition (ālambana-pratyaya), and the dominant condition (adhipati-pratyaya).

Original Text: What is the meaning of "arising"? It means being induced and grasped by the coming together of various conditions, the meaning of newly arising. What is "dependent origination" (pratītyasamutpāda)? What is "dependently arisen" (pratītyasamutpanna)? The nature of phenomena arising due to the activity of conditions is called "dependent origination." That which has already arisen is called "dependently arisen."

Explanation: What is the meaning of "arising"? "Arising" means the newly arisen phenomenon that is induced and grasped after all conditions come together; it is the dawning of something that did not exist before. What is "dependent origination"? What is "dependently arisen"? "Dependent origination" refers to the principle that all phenomena arise dependent on conditions, revealing the characteristics and nature of phenomena. Once the phenomenon has arisen, it is called "dependently arisen."

The conditions for the arising of phenomena are of four types: causal condition, immediate antecedent condition, dominant condition, and object condition. For example, when these four conditions are complete, the arising of the fertilized egg (name-and-form) in the mother's womb is called "dependent origination." When the fertilized egg is complete and the fetus is born, it is called "dependently arisen." When phenomena are not yet complete, it is called "arising"; once complete, it is called "birth." "Arising" precedes "birth," and they are sequentially connected as cause and effect. Phenomena continuously arising in sequence are called "arising," and the continuously formed phenomena arising in sequence are called "dependently arisen phenomena."

Original Text: Question: How many links are included within the truth of suffering and are suffering in the present? Answer: Two, namely birth and aging-and-death. Question: How many links are included within the truth of suffering and will be suffering in the future? Answer: The seed-nature of consciousness up to feeling. Question: How many links are included within the truth of the origin of suffering? Answer: The remaining links.

Explanation: Question: Among the twelve links, how many are included within the truth of suffering and are suffering in the present state? Answer: Two links: birth and aging-and-death. Question: How many are included within the truth of suffering and will induce suffering in the future? Answer: The seed-nature of the five links: consciousness, name-and-form, six sense bases, contact, and feeling. When these seeds mature and manifest in the future, suffering arises. Question: How many are included within the truth of the origin of suffering? Answer: The remaining five links are included within the truth of the origin of suffering: ignorance, volitional formations, craving, grasping, and becoming.

The suffering phenomena in the present life are the two links of birth and aging-and-death. Sentient beings suffer at birth, suffer in old age, and suffer even more at death. The links that induce future suffering are the consciousness link, which stores the karmic seeds of bodily, verbal, and mental actions and gives rise to the suffering name-and-form in future lives. The seeds of name-and-form, the six sense bases, contact, and feeling give rise to future name-and-form and the suffering of feeling. The five links of ignorance, volitional formations, craving, grasping, and becoming belong to the truth of the origin of suffering because the arising of ignorance induces suffering, the arising of bodily, verbal, and mental actions induces suffering, the arising of craving induces suffering, the arising of grasping further induces suffering, and the arising of becoming creates the necessary conditions for suffering to arise. Without ignorance, there would be no seeds for all subsequent phenomena; without seeds, there would be no subsequent suffering. Without bodily, verbal, and mental actions, there would be no karmic seeds; without karmic seeds, there would be no future suffering. Without craving, there would be no grasping; without grasping, there would be no future becoming; without becoming, there would be no suffering of birth, aging, sickness, and death.

Original Text: Question: Does ignorance function as a co-existent condition for volitional formations, as an immediately preceding condition, or as a remote condition for cessation? Answer: It should be understood that it functions as all three conditions. First, due to ignorance, within phenomena conforming to volitional formations, it acts as a co-existent obscuring condition, initiating various volitional formations for various purposes. Second, due to ignorance accompanied by wrong views and heedlessness, it acts as the immediately preceding condition for the arising of volitional formations, initiating them. Third, due to ignorance, acting as the remote condition inducing cessation, it establishes conformity with it, ensuring the continuity of future births.

Explanation: Question: Does ignorance function as a co-existent condition (sahabhū-hetu) for volitional formations, as an immediately preceding condition (samanantara-pratyaya), or as a remote condition for future cessation? Answer: Ignorance functions as all three conditions for volitional formations. First, due to the presence of ignorance in the mind, within the process conforming to the functioning of all phenomena, it acts as a co-existent condition, functioning obscurely, initiating the functioning of various phenomena for various purposes. Therefore, ignorance is a co-existent condition for volitional formations.

Second, due to the presence of ignorance and wrong views in the mind, coupled with heedlessness in not actively eliminating the wrong views, ignorance continuously accompanies all volitional formations, acting as the condition for the uninterrupted cessation and arising of phenomena, inducing the continuous functioning of all phenomena. Therefore, ignorance is the immediately preceding condition for volitional formations. Third, due to the presence of ignorance in the mind, conforming to ignorance leads to the eventual cessation of all phenomena; they are not permanent. Ignorance is the remote condition inducing the future cessation of all phenomena. Therefore, ignorance is the remote condition for the cessation of volitional formations.

Original Text: Question: How should it be understood that volitional formations function as three kinds of conditions for consciousness? Answer: First, by being able to perfume its seeds, they function as a co-existent condition. Subsequently, due to their force operating continuously, they function as the immediately preceding condition for arising. Because the future result can thereby arise, they function as the remote condition for cessation. Just as volitional formations function for consciousness, so too consciousness functions for name-and-form, name-and-form for the six sense bases, the six sense bases for contact, and contact for feeling.

Explanation: Question: How should it be understood that the volitional formations of the mental faculty (manas) function as three kinds of conditions for the six consciousnesses? Answer: First, because the volitional formations of the mental faculty can perfume the seeds of the six consciousnesses, it is said that volitional formations are the co-existent condition for consciousness; the arising of the six consciousnesses cannot occur apart from the volitional formations of the mental faculty. Second, due to the force of the volitional formations of the mental faculty operating, they become the condition for the uninterrupted cessation and arising of the six consciousnesses. Third, because the future karmic results of the six consciousnesses can thereby arise, the volitional formations of the mental faculty become the remote condition for the future cessation of the six consciousnesses. The relationship "volitional formations condition consciousness" is like this. Similarly, "consciousness conditions name-and-form," "name-and-form conditions the six sense bases," "the six sense bases condition contact," and "contact conditions feeling" also follow this pattern.

Consciousness functions as three kinds of conditions for name-and-form: First, due to the perfuming by the seeds created by the six consciousnesses, the birth of name-and-form in the future life cannot occur apart from these seeds. The karmic seeds of the six consciousnesses are the co-existent condition for the birth of name-and-form. Second, due to the force of the karmic seeds of the six consciousnesses operating, the seeds are the immediately preceding condition for the arising of name-and-form. Third, because the future karmic result of name-and-form can arise, the karmic seeds created by the six consciousnesses are the remote condition for the future cessation of name-and-form.

Name-and-form functions as three kinds of conditions for the six sense bases: First, name-and-form is the co-existent condition for the arising of the six sense bases. Second, name-and-form is the immediately preceding condition for the arising of the six sense bases. Third, name-and-form is the remote condition for the future cessation of the six sense bases. The six sense bases function as three kinds of conditions for contact: First, the six sense bases are the co-existent condition for the arising of contact. Second, the six sense bases are the immediately preceding condition for the arising of contact. Third, the six sense bases are the remote condition for the future cessation of contact. Contact functions as three kinds of conditions for feeling: First, contact is the co-existent condition for the arising of feeling. Second, contact is the immediately preceding condition for the arising of feeling. Third, contact is the remote condition for the future cessation of feeling.

Original Text: Question: How should it be understood that feeling functions as three kinds of conditions for craving? Answer: It should be known that because it gives rise to pleasure and attachment, it functions as a co-existent condition. Immediately thereafter, due to its force, the activity of seeking, etc., operates; thus, it functions as the immediately preceding condition for arising. It establishes the future continuity that is difficult to escape; thus, due to its continuity, it functions as the remote condition for cessation.

Explanation: Question: How should it be understood that feeling functions as three kinds of conditions for craving? Answer: It should be known that because, when experiencing feeling, the mind gives rise to pleasure and attachment, feeling becomes the co-existent condition for the arising of craving, and from then on, craving continues without interruption. Due to the force of craving, seeking and other mental activities arise. Because the function of feeling operates, it becomes the immediately preceding condition for the arising of craving. In this way, future five aggregates will continuously arise, making liberation difficult. Because feeling continues without interruption, it becomes the remote condition for the future cessation of craving.

Original Text: Question: How does craving function as three kinds of conditions for grasping? Answer: Because desire and greed operate together, establishing pleasure and attachment within phenomena conforming to grasping, it functions as a co-existent condition. Due to the force operating without interruption, it functions as the condition for arising. It establishes the future continuity that is difficult to escape; thus, due to its continuity, it functions as the remote condition for cessation.

Explanation: Question: Why does craving function as three kinds of conditions for grasping? Answer: Because desire and greed continuously accompany and operate together with grasping, and within the process conforming to the grasping of phenomena, there exists the mental activity of desire and pleasurable attachment, therefore craving is the co-existent condition for grasping. Due to the force of craving operating, it becomes the condition for the uninterrupted arising of grasping. In this way, the five aggregates in future lives will continuously arise and function, making liberation difficult to attain. Because craving continues without interruption, it becomes the remote condition for the future cessation of grasping.

Original Text: Question: How does grasping function as three kinds of conditions for becoming? Answer: Because it accompanies them, enabling karma to bring about the results in the various realms; thus, it functions as a co-existent condition. Also, due to its force, it can induce consciousness, etc., in that place of birth; thus, it functions as the immediately preceding condition for arising. Moreover, because it can induce the functions of that realm, it functions as the remote condition for cessation.

Explanation: Question: Why does grasping function as three kinds of conditions for becoming? Answer: Because the mental activity of sentient beings continuously accompanies grasping, enabling the karma created to bring about results within the six realms of rebirth. Therefore, grasping is the co-existent condition for becoming. Also, due to the force of grasping, it can induce the six consciousnesses and other links in the place of birth. Therefore, grasping becomes the immediately preceding condition for the arising of the six consciousnesses and other links. Moreover, because grasping can induce the functions of the various links within the three realms of existence, grasping is the remote condition for the future cessation of the six consciousnesses and other links.

Original Text: Question: How does becoming function as three kinds of conditions for birth? Answer: Because it perfumes the seeds for birth, it functions as a co-existent condition. Due to its force operating without interruption, it functions as the condition for arising. Although it ceases in the remote future, the result continues; thus, it functions as the condition inducing cessation. Just as becoming functions for birth, it should be understood that birth functions for aging-and-death as a condition in the same way.

Explanation: Question: Why does becoming function as three kinds of conditions for birth? Answer: Because becoming can perfume the karmic seeds for birth, it is said that becoming is the co-existent condition for birth; all karmic activities within the three realms of becoming are conditions for future birth. Due to the force of the three realms of becoming operating without interruption, becoming becomes the condition for the arising of future birth. Although the three realms of becoming will cease in the remote future, the karmic results within them will continue to operate. Therefore, the three realms of becoming are the inducing condition for birth. The relationship "becoming conditions birth" follows this principle. Similarly, "birth conditions aging-and-death" also has these three kinds of conditions.

Birth functions as three kinds of conditions for aging-and-death in the same way: Because there is birth, there will inevitably be aging and death; therefore, birth is the co-existent condition for aging-and-death. Because the force of birth operates without interruption, birth becomes the condition for the arising of aging-and-death, and also the remote condition for the future cessation of aging-and-death.

Original Text: Furthermore, the establishment of the link of becoming is twofold. First, it is established based on the predominant aspect, referring to the karma embraced by grasping, as explained before. Second, it is established in its full aspect, referring to karma, consciousness, up to the seeds of feeling, all embraced by grasping. It should be understood that this is established as becoming.

Explanation: The establishment of the link of becoming is twofold. First, it is established from the perspective of the predominant aspect, which is the karmic function embraced by grasping, as explained earlier regarding grasping being the three conditions for becoming. Second, it is established comprehensively, including all karmic activities, the six consciousnesses, name-and-form, the six sense bases, contact, and the seeds of feeling. All these are embraced by grasping, and then future becoming arises.

The cycle of the six realms is the result of grasping; it is the manifestation of the most predominant aspect of the three realms of becoming. This is the meaning of establishing becoming based on the predominant aspect. All karmic activities leave seeds. The actions of the six consciousnesses leave seeds. The arising, abiding, changing, and ceasing of name-and-form leave seeds. The functioning of the six sense bases leaves seeds. Contact leaves seeds. Feeling leaves seeds. These seeds cause the appearance of future becoming. These seeds also belong within the scope of becoming. Due to becoming, these links arise, and these links also belong to the category of becoming. This is the meaning of comprehensively establishing becoming.

Original Text: Question: Do these links of becoming only function sequentially as conditions for volitional formations up to aging-and-death? Do they have other functions? Answer: This function of conditioning volitional formations up to aging-and-death, and within their respective spheres of operation, each has its appropriate function. It should be known that all functions are called the second function. The first function is birth; after birth, within the three realms of becoming, the functions of volitional formations, consciousness, name-and-form, up to aging-and-death, etc., can occur.

Explanation: Question: Do these links of becoming only function sequentially as conditions for volitional formations up to aging-and-death? Do they have other functions? Answer: The function of conditioning volitional formations up to aging-and-death, and within their respective operational environments, each has its corresponding function. All functions are called the second function. The first function is birth; only after birth, within the three realms of becoming, can the functions of volitional formations, consciousness, name-and-form, up to aging-and-death, etc., occur.

Original Text: Question: Is ignorance only a condition for volitional formations, or is it also a condition for the other links? Answer: Ignorance is a condition even for aging-and-death. The previous statement that it is only a condition for volitional formations refers only to the meaning of the proximate condition. The remaining conditions mentioned should all be understood similarly.

Explanation: Question: Is ignorance only a condition for the link of volitional formations, or is it also a condition for the other links? Answer: Ignorance is not only a condition for volitional formations but also for consciousness, name-and-form, six sense bases, contact, feeling, craving, grasping, becoming, birth, and even aging-and-death. All eleven links operate due to ignorance. The previous statement that ignorance conditions volitional formations only refers to the condition most proximate to ignorance; the conditions mentioned subsequently should also be understood.

For example, the functioning of the six consciousnesses takes ignorance as a condition, creating defiled karmic actions. Name-and-form takes ignorance as a condition, resulting in defiled results. The six sense bases take ignorance as a condition, giving rise to defiled contact. Contact takes ignorance as a condition, giving rise to defiled feeling. Feeling takes ignorance as a condition, giving rise to defiled craving. Craving takes ignorance as a condition, giving rise to defiled grasping. Grasping takes ignorance as a condition, giving rise to undesirable becoming. Becoming takes ignorance as a condition, giving rise to defiled birth. Birth takes ignorance as a condition, giving rise to undesirable aging-and-death.

Original Text: Furthermore, a subsequent link is not a condition for a preceding link. Why? Because, in order to cease a subsequent link, one diligently applies effort to cease the preceding link. By ceasing the preceding link, the subsequent link also ceases accordingly. It is not the case that to cease a preceding link, one diligently applies effort to cease a subsequent link. Therefore, it should be understood that only this [preceding link] is a condition for that [subsequent link].

Explanation: Among the twelve links, a subsequent link is not a condition for a preceding link. Why is this said? Because if one wishes to cease a subsequent link, one must cease the preceding link; one must diligently apply effort, thereby ceasing the preceding link. Due to the cessation of the preceding link, the subsequent link also ceases accordingly. It is not the case that to cease a preceding link, one diligently applies effort to cease a subsequent link. Therefore, you should understand that only the preceding link is a condition for the subsequent link, not vice versa.

Original Text: Question: How is it said, "When this exists, that exists"? Answer: Because the condition has not been severed, other things can arise. Question: How is it said, "When this arises, that arises"? Answer: Because of the condition of impermanence, other things can arise.

Explanation: Question: Why is it said, "When this exists, that exists"? Answer: Because the condition for becoming has not yet been severed, causing other phenomena to arise; therefore, it is said, "When this exists, that exists." Question: Why is it said, "When this arises, that arises"? Answer: Because of the condition of impermanent arising, other phenomena can arise; therefore, it is said, "When this arises, that arises."

Original Text: Question: Why is it said, "Because there is birth, there is aging-and-death; aging-and-death arises dependent on birth as its condition"? And so on up to "ignorance conditions volitional formations"? Answer: Through this doctrinal principle, it is shown that from a condition without real function, other things can arise.

Explanation: Question: Why is it said that because there is birth, there is aging-and-death, and that aging-and-death necessarily depends on birth as its condition? Why are the other eleven links also like this: because there is ignorance, there are volitional formations; because there are volitional formations, there is consciousness; because there is consciousness, there is name-and-form; because there is name-and-form, there are the six sense bases; because there are the six sense bases, there is contact; because there is contact, there is feeling; because there is feeling, there is craving; because there is craving, there is grasping; because there is grasping, there is becoming; because there is becoming, there is birth?

Answer: The principle that "birth conditions aging-and-death" demonstrates that from a condition without real function, other phenomena can arise. The link of birth is not a real entity; it has no real function, yet it becomes the condition for the arising of the phenomenon of aging-and-death. The other eleven links are also like this: ignorance, though not a real entity and without actual function, is the condition for the arising of volitional formations. Similarly, volitional formations are the condition for the arising of consciousness.

Original Text: Question: Why is it said, "Because there is birth, there is aging-and-death; aging-and-death does not occur apart from birth as its condition"? And so on up to "ignorance conditions volitional formations"? Answer: Through this doctrinal principle, it is shown that from the condition of one's own continuum, other things within that very continuum can arise.

Explanation: Question: Why is it said that because there is birth, there is aging-and-death, and that aging-and-death does not occur apart from birth as its condition? Why is it said that because there is ignorance, there are volitional formations, and volitional formations do not occur apart from ignorance? Why is it said that because there are volitional formations, there is consciousness, and consciousness does not occur apart from volitional formations? And so on up to, because there is becoming, there is birth, and birth does not occur apart from becoming? Answer: Because the doctrinal principle that "birth conditions aging-and-death" demonstrates that due to the condition of birth's own continuum—that is, birth's own continuity—other links can arise; therefore, it is said that birth conditions aging-and-death. "Ignorance conditions volitional formations," "volitional formations condition consciousness," and so on are also like this.

Question: If a phenomenon has ignorance as its condition, is that phenomenon volitional formations? If it is volitional formations, does it necessarily have ignorance as its condition? Answer: This should be analyzed in four propositions. (1) There are volitional formations that do not have ignorance as their condition, namely outflow-free (anāsrava) and non-obscuring non-defined (avyākṛta) bodily, verbal, and mental formations. (2) There are phenomena that have ignorance as their condition but are not volitional formations, namely all the links of becoming except those included within volitional formations. (3) There are phenomena that both have ignorance as their condition and are volitional formations, namely wholesome, unwholesome, and imperturbable (āniñjya) bodily, verbal, and mental formations. (4) Apart from these cases, the remainder constitutes the fourth proposition.

Explanation: Question: If a phenomenon arises conditioned by ignorance, is this phenomenon volitional formations? If it is volitional formations, is its arising necessarily conditioned by ignorance? Answer: This question should be divided into four propositions: 1. Some volitional formations do not arise conditioned by ignorance, such as outflow-free actions and non-obscuring non-defined bodily, verbal, and mental actions. 2. Some phenomena arise conditioned by ignorance, but these phenomena are not volitional formations, such as all the links of becoming except those included within the volitional formations link, i.e., consciousness, name-and-form, six sense bases, contact, feeling, craving, grasping, becoming, birth, and aging-and-death. 3. Some phenomena arise conditioned by ignorance and also belong to the volitional formations link, such as wholesome bodily, verbal, and mental actions, unwholesome bodily, verbal, and mental actions, and imperturbable bodily, verbal, and mental actions (neither unwholesome nor non-unwholesome pure actions). 4. Apart from these cases, the remainder constitutes the fourth proposition: phenomena that do not arise conditioned by ignorance and are not volitional formations.

Outflow-free karmic actions are no longer included within the twelve links; they transcend the scope of the twelve links and are not induced by ignorance. Non-obscuring non-defined bodily, verbal, and mental actions are also not embraced by ignorance; they transcend the scope of the twelve links. Therefore, they involve no karmic actions or results of birth and death. Among the twelve links, all eleven links except ignorance are embraced by ignorance and contain ignorance, but ignorance induces the volitional formations link most directly; its relationship to the other links is more indirect, hence "ignorance conditions volitional formations." Within the volitional formations embraced by ignorance, actions creating wholesome karma are also embraced by ignorance—due to not understanding the Four Noble Truths and the principle of true reality, actions seeking outflows of wholesome karma are actions of ignorance. Actions creating unwholesome non-meritorious karma are even more embraced by ignorance. The actions of meditative absorption cultivating imperturbability by non-Buddhists are also cultivated due to not understanding the principle of liberation, hence they are also actions conditioned by ignorance.

Original Text: Question: If something has volitional formations as its condition, is it also consciousness? If it is consciousness, does it necessarily have volitional formations as its condition? Answer: This should be analyzed in four propositions. (1) There are things that have volitional formations as their condition but are not consciousness, namely all the links of becoming except consciousness. (2) There is consciousness that does not have volitional formations as its condition, namely outflow-free consciousness and non-obscuring non-defined consciousness, excluding that which is ripened (vipākaja). (3) There is consciousness that also has volitional formations as its condition, namely the seed consciousness for future existence and the resultant consciousness. (4) Apart from these cases, the remainder constitutes the fourth proposition. By this principle, up to "contact conditions feeling," the corresponding four propositions should be understood.

Explanation: Question: If a phenomenon arises conditioned by volitional formations, is this phenomenon also consciousness? If this phenomenon is consciousness, is its arising necessarily conditioned by volitional formations? Answer: This question should be divided into four propositions: 1. Some phenomena are conditioned by volitional formations but are not consciousness, namely all the other links of becoming except consciousness, such as name-and-form, six sense bases, contact, feeling, craving, grasping, becoming, birth, and aging-and-death—these are also conditioned by volitional formations. 2. Some consciousness does not have volitional formations as its condition, such as outflow-free consciousness and non-obscuring non-defined consciousness, excluding consciousness of ripened nature. 3. There is consciousness that also has volitional formations as its condition, such as the seed consciousness leading to future existence and the resultant consciousness. 4. Apart from these cases, the remainder constitutes the fourth proposition: phenomena not conditioned by volitional formations and not being consciousness. By this same principle, it can be understood that name-and-form conditioned by consciousness, the six sense bases conditioned by name-and-form, contact conditioned by the six sense bases, feeling conditioned by contact, etc., all correspond to these four propositions.

The links of name-and-form, six sense bases, contact, feeling, craving, grasping, becoming, birth, and aging-and-death are also all conditioned by volitional formations; they are phenomena arising from the functioning of the mental faculty's volitional formations. Without the functioning of volitional formations, none of the subsequent phenomena would appear. However, the direct link for volitional formations is the six consciousnesses; the direct condition for the arising of the six consciousnesses is volitional formations, while the direct condition for name-and-form up to aging-and-death is the preceding link; volitional formations are an indirect condition. Another issue is that once the six consciousnesses are free from afflictive outflows, the direct condition for their arising is no longer the ignorant volitional formations of the mental faculty but the enlightened volitional formations of the mental faculty. These are no longer within the twelve links of dependent origination; their results have transcended the cycle of birth and death within the twelve links. Sentient beings have also eliminated the seeds of their ordinary nature (pṛthagjanatā); there is no longer rebirth in the six realms, and there is no more birth at different times, in different places, in different realms, or in different bodies. This is the state of eighth-stage Bodhisattvas and above.

Both seed consciousness and resultant consciousness refer to the six consciousnesses. Seed consciousness means that in the present life, conditioned by volitional formations, karmic actions are performed, leaving karmic seeds that moisten future name-and-form. After name-and-form is born in the future life, resultant consciousness arises upon the name-and-form to experience the results. Both types of consciousness arise conditioned by volitional formations. Conditioned by ignorant volitional formations, only ignorant consciousness arises; conditioned by enlightened, outflow-free volitional formations, outflow-free consciousness arises, including outflow-free seed consciousness and outflow-free resultant consciousness. This also illustrates that the mental faculty is the basis for the defilement or purity of the six consciousnesses; consciousness cannot become pure independently, cannot eradicate the view of self and afflictions independently; it must rely on the mental faculty to eradicate the view of self and afflictions, thereby attaining the outflow-free state.

Original Text: Question: If something has feeling as its condition, is it all craving? If it is craving, does it all necessarily have feeling as its condition? Answer: This should be analyzed in four propositions. (1) There is craving that does not have feeling as its condition, namely the desire for supreme liberation and the abandoning of other cravings based on wholesome desire. (2) There are things that have feeling as their condition but are not craving, namely the arising of the remaining links of becoming, excluding those arising from feeling conditioned by ignorant contact. (3) There are things that have feeling as their condition and are also craving, namely the arising of defiled craving conditioned by feeling arising from ignorant contact. (4) Apart from these cases, the remainder constitutes the fourth proposition.

Explanation: Question: If a phenomenon arises conditioned by feeling, are all such phenomena craving? If they are all craving, do they all necessarily arise conditioned by feeling? Answer: This question should be divided into four propositions: 1. Some craving does not arise conditioned by feeling, such as the desire for supreme liberation and abandoning other cravings based on wholesome desire. 2. Some phenomena arise conditioned by feeling, but these phenomena are not embraced by craving, such as the arising of the remaining links of becoming, excluding phenomena arising from feeling conditioned by ignorant contact or feeling conditioned by outflow-free contact; phenomena arising conditioned by such feeling are not embraced by craving. 3. Some phenomena arise conditioned by feeling and belong to the craving link, such as defiled craving arising conditioned by feeling arising from ignorant contact. Apart from the cases described above, the remainder constitutes the fourth proposition: phenomena that do not arise conditioned by feeling and are not embraced by craving.