Exposition on the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination in the Yogācārabhūmi
Chapter 2 Volume Ten: The Twelve Links of Dependent Origination
Section 1 The Desire-Craving and Existence of the Three Realms
Original text:欲爱云何。谓欲界诸行为缘所生。于欲界行染污希求。由此能生。欲界苦果。色爱云何。谓色界诸行为缘所生。于色界行染污希求。由此能生。色界苦果。无色爱云何。谓无色界诸行为缘所生。于无色界行染污希求。由此能生。无色界苦果。
Explanation: What is desire-craving (kāma-tṛṣṇā)? Desire-craving is the greedy craving born with all the volitional formations of the desire realm—the aggregate of form, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness—as the condition; it is the defiled longing, pursuit, thoughts, and wishes engaged in within the desire realm, and by means of these longings and attachments, the suffering fruits of the desire realm can be born. What is form-realm craving (rūpa-tṛṣṇā)? Form-realm craving is the greedy craving born with all the volitional formations of the form realm—the aggregate of form, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness—as the condition; it is the defiled longings and wishes engaged in within the form realm, and by means of these defiled longings, the suffering fruits of the form realm can be born. What is formless-realm craving (arūpa-tṛṣṇā)? Formless-realm craving is the greedy craving born with all the volitional formations of the formless realm—feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness—as the condition; it is the defiled longings and wishes engaged in within the formless realm, and by means of these, the suffering fruits of the formless realm can be born.
The volitional formations of the desire realm include all life activities in the desire realm, all the creations of the five aggregates, the contact formed by the conjunction of faculties, sense objects, and consciousnesses, as well as feeling, perception, and volition, and the defiled mental activities such as greed, hatred, delusion, arrogance, doubt, and wrong views (mithyā-dṛṣṭi) that arise when the six consciousnesses perceive all dharmas. Defilement refers to the mind not being pure (viśuddha), not being tranquil (praśama), not relinquishing, having something to seek and grasp, having self and what belongs to self, and so on. Because sentient beings' minds constantly dwell in pits of defilement, so severely defiled that they have become accustomed to it, it is very difficult for them to introspect upon the defilement of their own minds, and they do not know the boundary and standard between defilement and purity, believing that all their mental activities are normal, perfectly natural, and inherently so. Therefore, it is very difficult for sentient beings' cultivation to get on the right track. The path of realization is indeed long and arduous; to be utterly transformed and to realize the first fruit (srotāpanna) or the direction toward the first fruit is not an easy matter.
The form realm and the formless realm have the four dhyānas and eight meditative absorptions (samādhi), so why is there still longing, still defilement, still defiled activities? Those of the first and second fruits do not have the four dhyānas and eight absorptions; having attained the four dhyānas and eight absorptions, one is a person of the third fruit (anāgāmin) or the fourth fruit (arhat). The four dhyānas and eight absorptions of ordinary beings can only temporarily suppress and subdue afflictions, not eradicate them; they have not eradicated the view of self (satkāya-dṛṣṭi), and due to ignorance and the view of self, they have various kinds of inappropriate attention and defiled longings. For example, taking the physical body as self and longing for it never to perish; taking feeling as self and greedily craving the bliss of meditative concentration; taking consciousness as self and dwelling in the realm of the aggregate of perception, and so on. The volitional formations of the form realm include feeling born from eye contact, feeling born from ear contact, feeling born from body contact, and feeling born from mental contact; afterwards, form-realm craving is born, and there are defiled longings. The volitional formations of the formless realm consist only of feeling born from mental contact; attachment to the states of meditative concentration gives rise to defiled longings.
Likewise, the devas of the form realm and formless realm also have defiled longings and defiled activities; apart from the anāgāmin of the third fruit and the arhat of the fourth fruit, all other devas have defilements to varying degrees. Those of the first fruit (srotāpanna) and second fruit (sakṛdāgāmin) do not have the first dhyāna; if they are reborn in the heavens at the end of life, they can only go to the desire-realm heavens, not to the form-realm or formless-realm heavens. Those of the third fruit have meditative concentration of the first dhyāna and above, and at the end of life they will be reborn in the five Pure Abodes (ākaniṣṭha heavens); some will attain the fourth fruit in the neutrino-body (antarā-bhava) and enter nirvāṇa without remainder (Anupadhiśeṣa-nirvāṇa); those of the fourth fruit who do not turn their minds toward the Great Vehicle directly enter nirvāṇa without remainder.
Therefore, the devas of the form-realm and formless-realm heavens are almost all ordinary beings possessing the four dhyānas and eight absorptions. Ordinary beings have not eradicated the view of self, and thus have not eradicated afflictions; relying on meditative concentration, they can only subdue the corresponding afflictions of greed, hatred, and delusion. Because ordinary devas have not eradicated the view of self, they take some dharma, multiple dharmas, or all dharmas among the five aggregates and eighteen realms as self and grasp onto them (upādāna); almost all of them have defiled mental activities and inclinations, almost all have defiled longings and wishes. For example, longing for eternal youth without aging, longing for immortality, craving the bliss of meditative concentration and the merit of samādhi—these longings are desires and defilements, they are the karma of birth-and-death saṃsāra, capable of summoning the suffering of birth and death, never escaping the cycle of rebirth. What suffering is there in the form realm and formless realm? Arising, ceasing, and change is suffering; death is suffering; knowing that after death there is still rebirth is suffering; knowing that after death one will take rebirth in the three evil destinies to receive retribution is suffering; that life cannot exist forever is suffering; that the body cannot live forever is suffering.
Original text:欲取云何。谓于诸欲。所有欲贪。见取云何。谓除萨迦耶见。于所余见。所有欲贪。戒禁取云何。谓于邪愿。所起戒禁。所有欲贪。我语取云何。谓于萨迦耶见。所有欲贪。初唯能生。欲界苦果。余三通生。三界苦果。
Explanation: What is the grasping of desire (kāma-upādāna)? The grasping of desire is the greedy craving and grasping that arises toward all the dharmas of the three realms. What is the grasping of views (dṛṣṭi-upādāna)? The grasping of views is all the greedy craving and grasping toward views other than the view of self. What is the grasping of precepts and vows (śīlavrata-upādāna)? The grasping of precepts and vows is all the greedy craving and grasping toward the prohibitions and precepts that arise from unwholesome, unreasonable vows—for example, non-Buddhist practitioners who believe that undergoing ascetic torment can extinguish all sinful karma, and therefore vow to inflict unbearable suffering upon themselves every day, futilely tormenting themselves, persistently grasping at such prohibitions and precepts. What is the grasping of the assertion of self (ātma-vāda-upādāna)? The grasping of the assertion of self is all the greedy craving and grasping that arises from the view of self. The first, the grasping of desire, can only give birth to the suffering fruits of the desire realm; the other three—grasping of views, grasping of precepts and vows, and grasping of the assertion of self—can give birth to the suffering fruits of all three realms.
Grasping at the dharmas of the desire realm means one cannot escape the birth-and-death cycle of the desire realm, cannot go to the form realm, the formless realm, or other buddha-lands, much less attain nirvāṇa. Only sentient beings in the desire realm grasp at desire-realm dharmas; sentient beings in the form realm and formless realm grasp at form-realm and formless-realm dharmas, as well as at nirvāṇa and other buddha-lands. Among views other than the view of self, wrong views (mithyā-dṛṣṭi) predominate—for example, holding that the body of the five aggregates was created by Mahābrahmā, or by divine power, and so on. Grasping at such wrong views, one has no right view and cannot attain liberation. The greedy craving that arises from the view of self has a very wide scope; all sentient beings who have not eradicated the view of self have this kind of craving.
Original text:欲有云何。谓欲界前时有。业有死有。中有生有。及那落迦。傍生饿鬼人天有。总说名欲有。此复由先所作。诸行烦恼摄受。之所熏发。色有云何。谓除那落迦。傍生饿鬼人有。所余是色有应知。无色有云何。谓复除中有。所余是无色有应知。
Explanation: What is desire-realm existence (bhava)? Desire-realm existence is the existence prior to birth in the desire realm, including the existence of creating karmic activities, the existence at the time of death, the existence of the neutrino-body (antarā-bhava), the existence at the time of birth, as well as the existence of hell beings (naraka), animals, hungry ghosts (preta), humans, and desire-realm devas; taken together, this is called desire-realm existence. This, in turn, arises through the pervasion and stimulation of the grasping of the volitional formations and afflictive karma previously created.
What is form-realm existence? Apart from hell beings, animals, hungry ghosts, and humans, the remaining existence is form-realm existence, including the existence of karmic activities, the existence at the time of death, the existence of the neutrino-body, and the existence at the time of birth. What is formless-realm existence? On top of form-realm existence, further excluding the existence of the neutrino-body, the remainder is formless-realm existence, including karmic existence, death existence, and birth existence.
Desire-realm existence is the volitional formations of the desire realm: bodily, verbal, and mental actions, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness, as well as sense realms, including the precepts, concentration (samādhi), and wisdom practiced by the five aggregates, as well as greed, hatred, delusion, ignorance, and afflictions. Form-realm existence is the volitional formations of the form realm, including bodily and mental activities, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness, sense realms, and meditative concentration and wisdom. Formless-realm existence is the volitional formations of the formless realm: mental activities, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness, and the states of dhyāna.
Original text:问。依何义故建立七有。所谓那落迦傍生。饿鬼人天有。业有中有。答。依三种所作故。一能引有谓一。二趣有有谓一。三受用果有谓五。
Explanation: Question: On the basis of what principle are the seven kinds of existence established—namely, hell beings, animals, hungry ghosts, humans, devas, karmic existence, and the neutrino-body existence? Answer: On the basis of three kinds of activities, they are divided into seven existences: the first is that which can draw forth existence in the three realms, which is karmic existence; the second is the neutrino-body that can proceed toward existence in the three realms; the third is the existence in the three realms that experiences the fruits of retribution, which is the existence of beings of the five destinies; together these are the seven kinds of existence.
Original text:生云何。谓于胎卵二生。初托生时。等生云何。谓即于彼身分圆满。仍未出时。趣云何。谓从彼出。起云何。谓出已增长。出现云何。谓于湿化二生。身分顿起。
Explanation: What is birth (janman)? Birth is when beings of the two modes of birth—womb-born and egg-born—first take conception. What is equal birth? Equal birth is when the bodily parts within the womb or egg have matured and become complete but have not yet emerged—in common parlance, waiting to be born. What is proceeding to a destiny (gati)? Proceeding means emerging from the womb or egg. What is arising? Arising is the growth stage after a being is born. What is manifestation? Manifestation is when beings of the two modes of birth—moisture-born and transformation-born—have their bodily parts suddenly appear.
Original text:蕴得云何。谓即于彼诸生位中。五取蕴转。界得云何。谓即彼诸蕴因缘所摄性。处得云何。谓即彼诸蕴。余缘所摄性。诸蕴生起云何。谓即彼诸蕴。日日饮食。之所资长命根。出现云何。谓即彼诸蕴。余寿力故。得相续住。
Explanation: What does "attainment of the aggregates" mean? Attainment of the aggregates means that in all the stages of existence, the five grasping aggregates of form, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness operate; it means the five aggregates are born and manifest. What does "attainment of the realms" (dhātu) mean? Attainment of the realms is the attribute subsumed by the various causes and conditions of those grasping aggregates. What does "attainment of the bases" (āyatana) mean? Attainment of the bases is the attribute subsumed by the remaining conditions of the grasping aggregates, such as the inner six sense bases (ṣaḍāyatana) and outer six sense bases, the combined place of contact between faculties and sense objects. What does "arising of the aggregates" mean? It means the five grasping aggregates are daily sustained by food and drink, nourishing and sustaining the life faculty so that it does not perish. What does "manifestation" mean? After the living being is born, by the causal power of the remaining lifespan of the five grasping aggregates, the living being is able to continue dwelling in the world.
Attainment of the realms can be described as obtaining the realms—the dharma realm comes into being, including the faculty realms, the sense-object realms, and the consciousness realms. For example, within the five aggregates, each faculty has its own attribute, each sense object has its own attribute, each consciousness has its own attribute; because the attributes differ, there are boundaries between dharma and dharma. When a dharma is born, that is the attainment of the realm.
Original text:此生支略义者。谓若生自性。若生处位。若所生。若因缘所摄。若任持所引。若俱生依持。是名略义。衰云何。谓依止劣故。令彼掉动。老云何。谓发色衰变。摄云何。谓皮肤缓皱。熟云何。谓火力衰减。无复势力。受用欲尘。
Explanation: The general meaning of the link of birth among the twelve links of dependent origination is as follows: birth's general meaning may refer to the self-nature of birth, or to the stage or position where birth takes place, or to that which is born, or to that which is subsumed by causes and conditions, or to the dharmas drawn forth by spontaneous sustaining, or to the dharmas relied upon and held from birth onward—these constitute the general meaning of birth. What is decline? Decline means that because the dharma relied upon has become inferior and weak, oneself declines and becomes feeble. What is aging (jarā)? Aging refers to the deterioration of the hair and complexion. What is wrinkling? Wrinkling refers to the skin gradually becoming loose and wrinkled. What is ripening/maturity? Maturity refers to the decline of the fire element within the physical body, no longer having vigorous energy to enjoy the objects of the five desires and six sense objects.
The self-nature of birth is coming into existence from non-existence; newly appearing is called birth. The stages of birth are divided into several phases, for example the several phases within the mother's womb, emerging from the womb, and then gradually growing. If A gives birth to B, B is that which is born. Birth is a dharma that appears through the conjunction of causes and conditions; without causes and conditions there would be no birth, and where there is birth there must be the subsumption of causes and conditions; therefore birth is an empty dharma. Birth is also a dharma drawn forth by spontaneous sustaining; for example, when nāma-rūpa (name-and-form) spontaneously grows, the six sense bases are born; when the six sense bases grow, contact is born; when faculties and sense objects touch, consciousness is born, and so on.
Original text:气力损坏云何。谓性多疾病故。无有势力能作事业。黑黡间身云何。谓黯黑出现。损其容色。身脊伛曲。喘息奔急云何。谓行步威仪。身形所显。由此发起极重喘嗽。形貌偻前云何。谓坐威仪位。身首低曲。凭据杖策云何。谓住威仪位。依杖力而住。
Explanation: What does "deterioration of vigor" mean? It means that by nature one has many illnesses, lacking the strength and power to accomplish any undertakings. What does "darkness interspersing the body" mean? This means that darkness appears on the body, damaging its complexion. What is the matter with a hunched, curved spine and rapid, labored breathing? This refers to the phenomenon of a stooped back and irregular breath, manifested in the body's form as a lack of deportment in walking, standing, sitting, and lying down, and consequently severe panting and coughing appear. What is the state of a body stooped forward? This indicates that although the body sits with proper deportment, the body and head are lowered and bent. What does leaning on a staff mean? It means that in the standing deportment, one relies on the strength of a staff to stand.
Original text:昏昧云何。谓卧威仪位。数重睡眠。羸劣云何。谓即于此位。无力速觉。损减云何。谓念慧衰退。衰退云何。谓念慧劣故。至于善法不能现行。诸根耄熟云何。谓身体尪羸。功用破坏云何。谓彼于境不复明利。诸行朽故云何。谓彼于后将欲终时。
Explanation: What does "dullness" mean? Dullness means the body is in a lying-down state, the mind is very drowsy, and sleep is heavy. What does "feebleness" mean? Feebleness is lacking the power to quickly awaken, insufficient mental strength, insufficient capacity for action. What is diminution? Diminution is the decline of both the power of mindfulness and the power of wisdom (prajñā-bala). What is decline? Decline means that because the powers of mindfulness and wisdom have become inferior, wholesome dharmas can no longer manifest. What does "the faculties grown decrepit" mean? This means the body has become emaciated and weak. What does "loss of function" mean? It means one is no longer sharp and quick regarding sense realms, and one's reactions have become sluggish. What does "the volitional formations having decayed" mean? It means all bodily, verbal, and mental actions have deteriorated, and death will come before long.
Original text:其形腐败云何。谓寿量将尽。身形临坏。于诸事业。无复功能。此老略义者。谓依止变坏。须发变坏。充悦变坏。火力变坏。无病变坏。色相变坏。威仪变坏。无色诸根变坏。有色诸根变坏。时分已过。寿量将尽。略义应知。彼彼有情云何。谓那落迦等。有情种类云何。谓即彼一切。
Explanation: What does "the form having decayed" mean? It means the lifespan is about to end, the body's form is on the verge of destruction, and there is no longer the capacity to carry out one's undertakings. The general meaning of aging is: the bodily faculty one relies upon deteriorates, the hair and beard turn gray and deteriorate, the mental state deteriorates, the body's fire element weakens, bodily health deteriorates, the physical appearance deteriorates, the deportment of walking, standing, sitting, and lying down declines, the formless manas deteriorates, the five faculties with form deteriorate, the time of living is nearly gone, and the lifespan is about to reach its end—this is the general meaning, which should be understood. How does the manas deteriorate? For example, the appearance of various kinds of hysteria, mental illnesses, psychological disorders, and so on. What is "this and that kind of sentient being"? This refers to sentient beings of the six destinies, such as those in hell. What does "the categories of sentient beings" mean? It means all sentient beings without exception.
Original text:终云何。谓诸有情。离解支节而死。尽云何。谓诸有情。由解支节而死。坏云何。谓识离身。没云何。谓诸色根灭。舍寿云何。谓气将尽位。舍暖云何。谓不动位。弃舍诸蕴。命根谢灭云何。谓时死。
Explanation: What is "ending" (cyuti)? Ending is when the life of all sentient beings comes to its end, when the dissolution of the four great elements and the dismemberment of the physical body are not far off. What does "exhaustion" mean? It means all sentient beings die with the body's faculties dismembered and the four great elements all separated. What does "dissolution" mean? It means the eight consciousnesses have departed from the body. What does "vanishing" mean? It means all the five faculties with form have ceased. What does "relinquishing the lifespan" mean? It means the stage when the breath is about to be exhausted. What does "relinquishing warmth" mean? It means the five aggregates have come to a standstill, unmoving, and are all relinquished. What does "the life faculty passing away" mean? It means death at the appointed time.
Original text:死云何。谓遇横缘。非时而死。时运尽云何。谓初死未久位。又死魔业名时运尽。此死略义者。谓若死若死法。若死差别。若死后位。是名略义。如是名为。缘起差别应知。
Explanation: What does "death" (maraṇa) mean? It means encountering extremely forceful adverse conditions and dying before one's lifespan is exhausted—that is, dying an untimely or accidental death. What does "the allotted time being exhausted" mean? It means the stage shortly after death has occurred; the māra-activity of death is also called the exhaustion of one's allotted time. The general meaning of death includes dying itself, includes how one dies, includes the various differentiated aspects of death, and includes the destination after death—this is the general meaning of death, also called the differentiated links of dependent origination of death. This should be understood.
