Chapter Two   Volume Ten: The Twelve Links of Dependent Origination  

Section One   The Existence of Craving in the Three Realms

Original Text: What is desire for existence (kāma-trṣṇā)? It is that which arises conditioned by all formations (saṃskāra) of the desire realm (kāmadhātu). It is the defiled craving and aspiration for the formations of the desire realm. Thereby, it brings forth the suffering (duḥkha) of the desire realm. What is craving for form (rūpa-trṣṇā)? It is that which arises conditioned by all formations of the form realm (rūpadhātu). It is the defiled craving and aspiration for the formations of the form realm. Thereby, it brings forth the suffering of the form realm. What is craving for the formless (ārūpya-trṣṇā)? It is that which arises conditioned by all formations of the formless realm (ārūpyadhātu). It is the defiled craving and aspiration for the formations of the formless realm. Thereby, it brings forth the suffering of the formless realm.

Explanation: What is desire for existence? Desire for existence is the craving born conditioned by all formations (the aggregates of form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness) of the desire realm. It is the defiled aspirations, pursuits, thoughts, and wishes operating within the desire realm. From these aspirations and cravings, the suffering of the desire realm is produced. What is craving for form? Craving for form is the craving born conditioned by all formations (the aggregates of form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness) of the form realm. It is the defiled aspirations and wishes operating within the form realm. From these defiled aspirations, the suffering of the form realm is produced. What is craving for the formless? Craving for the formless is the craving born conditioned by all formations (the aggregates of feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness) of the formless realm. It is the defiled aspirations and wishes operating within the formless realm. Thereby, it brings forth the suffering of the formless realm.

The formations of the desire realm include all life activities within the desire realm, all actions of the five aggregates, the contact arising from the coming together of the three [sense] bases (faculty, object, and consciousness), and feeling, perception, volition, the six consciousnesses giving rise to greed, hatred, delusion, arrogance, doubt, wrong views, and other defiled mental activities. Defilement refers to the mind being impure, unquiet, unrelinquishing, seeking, possessing self and what belongs to self, and so forth. Because sentient beings' minds constantly dwell in a pit of defilement, the defilement is so severe and habitual that it is difficult to introspect and recognize the defilement within their own minds. They also do not know the boundary and standard between defilement and purity, believing all their mental activities to be normal, natural, and inherently so. Therefore, it is difficult for sentient beings to embark on the correct path of practice. The path of cultivation and realization is indeed long and arduous. To undergo a complete transformation and attain the fruit of Stream-entry (srota-āpanna) or the stage approaching Stream-entry is not an easy matter.

The form and formless realms have the four dhyānas and eight samādhis. Why then are there still aspirations, defilement, and defiled actions? Stream-enterers (srota-āpanna) and Once-returners (sakṛdāgāmin) do not possess the four dhyānas and eight samādhis. Those who possess the four dhyānas and eight samādhis are Non-returners (anāgāmin) and Arhats (arhat). The four dhyānas and eight samādhis of ordinary beings can only temporarily suppress and subdue afflictions (kleśa); they cannot eradicate them. They have not eradicated the view of self (satkāya-dṛṣṭi), and due to ignorance (avidyā) and the view of self, they have various irrational mental engagements and defiled aspirations. For example, taking the physical body as self, aspiring for it never to perish; taking feeling as self, greedily seeking the bliss of meditative absorption; taking consciousness as self, abiding in the realm of perception, and so on. The formations of the form realm include feeling born from contact with the eye, feeling born from contact with the ear, feeling born from contact with the body, and feeling born from contact with the mind. Afterwards, craving for form arises, leading to defiled aspirations. The formations of the formless realm involve only feeling born from contact with the mind, and attachment to the state of meditative absorption gives rise to defiled aspirations.

Similarly, gods (devas) in the form and formless realms also have defiled aspirations and defiled actions. Except for Non-returners (anāgāmin) and Arhats (arhat), all other devas possess defilements to varying degrees. Stream-enterers and Once-returners do not possess the first dhyāna. If they die and are reborn in a heaven, they can only go to a desire realm heaven, not to the form or formless realm heavens. Non-returners possess the first dhyāna or higher. After death, they are reborn in the Pure Abodes (śuddhāvāsa), or some may attain the fruit of Arhatship in the intermediate state (antarābhava) and enter Parinirvāṇa without residue (nirupadhiśeṣa-nirvāṇa). Arhats who do not turn towards the Mahāyāna directly enter Parinirvāṇa without residue.

Therefore, the devas in the form and formless realms are almost all ordinary beings (pṛthagjana) possessing the four dhyānas and eight samādhis. Ordinary devas have not eradicated the view of self and thus have not eradicated afflictions. Relying on meditative absorption, they can only suppress corresponding greed, hatred, and delusion. Because ordinary devas have not eradicated the view of self, they grasp at one, several, or all of the dharmas within the five aggregates and eighteen elements (dhātus) as self. They almost all have defiled mental activities and inclinations, almost all have defiled aspirations and wishes. For example, aspiring for immortality, aspiring for eternal life, aspiring for the bliss and blessings of meditative absorption. These aspirations are desires and defilements; they are the karma for the cycle of birth and death (saṃsāra), capable of inducing the suffering of birth and death, preventing liberation from saṃsāra. What suffering exists in the form and formless realms? Birth, decay, change, and death are suffering. Knowing there is rebirth after death is suffering. Knowing that after death one may fall into the three lower realms (durgati) to receive retribution is suffering. The inability of life to exist forever is suffering. The inability of the body to be long-lasting is suffering.

Original Text: What is grasping for sensual desires (kāmopādāna)? It is the craving and desire for all sensual objects. What is grasping for views (dṛṣṭyupādāna)? It is the craving and desire for all views except the view of self (satkāya-dṛṣṭi). What is grasping for rites and vows (śīlavratopādāna)? It is the craving and desire for ascetic practices and vows arisen from wrong aspirations. What is grasping for the doctrine of self (ātmavādopādāna)? It is the craving and desire for the view of self. The first [grasping] can only bring forth the suffering of the desire realm. The remaining three can bring forth the suffering of all three realms.

Explanation: What is grasping for sensual desires? Grasping for sensual desires is the greed and clinging arising towards all dharmas of the three realms. What is grasping for views? Grasping for views is the greed and clinging towards all knowledge and views except the view of self. What is grasping for rites and vows? Grasping for rites and vows is all the greed and clinging arising from ascetic practices (śīla) and vows (vrata) produced based on irrational wrong aspirations. For example, non-Buddhists believe that undergoing severe ascetic practices can extinguish all sinful karma, so they vow to inflict unbearable suffering upon themselves daily, tormenting themselves fruitlessly, persistently clinging to these ascetic practices. What is grasping for the doctrine of self? Grasping for the doctrine of self is all the greed and clinging arising due to the view of self. The first type, grasping for sensual desires, brings forth the suffering of the desire realm. Grasping for views, grasping for rites and vows, and grasping for the doctrine of self bring forth the suffering of all three realms.

Grasping for dharmas of the desire realm binds one to the birth and death of the desire realm; one cannot go to the form realm, formless realm, or other Buddha-lands, much less attain Nirvāṇa. Only beings in the desire realm grasp for dharmas of the desire realm. Beings in the form and formless realms grasp for dharmas of their respective realms, as well as for Nirvāṇa and other Buddha-lands. Views other than the view of self are mostly wrong views, such as believing the five aggregates body was created by Brahmā, or created by divine power, etc. Clinging to such wrong views means one lacks right view and cannot attain liberation. The greed arising from the view of self is very broad; all beings who have not eradicated the view of self possess this greed.

Original Text: What is existence in the desire realm (kāma-bhava)? It refers to the prior existence (pūrva-kāla-bhava), the existence of karmic action (karma-bhava), the existence of death (maraṇa-bhava), the intermediate state (antarā-bhava), the existence of birth (upapatti-bhava), as well as the existences of hell beings (nāraka), animals (tiryagyoni), hungry ghosts (preta), humans (manuṣya), and gods (deva) [in the desire realm]. Collectively, these are called existence in the desire realm. This, moreover, is instigated and induced by the previously performed karmic formations (saṃskāra) of the desire realm, which are embraced by defilements (kleśa). What is existence in the form realm (rūpa-bhava)? It should be understood as excluding the existences of hell beings, animals, hungry ghosts, and humans; the remainder is existence in the form realm. What is existence in the formless realm (ārūpya-bhava)? It should be understood as further excluding the intermediate state; the remainder is existence in the formless realm.

Explanation: What is existence in the desire realm? Existence in the desire realm is the existence prior to birth in the desire realm, including the existence of karmic actions, the existence at the time of death, the existence of the intermediate state, the existence at the time of birth, and the existences of hell, animals, hungry ghosts, humans, and desire realm gods. Collectively, these are called existence in the desire realm. This is instigated and induced by the previously performed karmic formations of the desire realm embraced by defilements.

What is existence in the form realm? Excluding hell, animals, hungry ghosts, and humans, the remaining existence is that of the form realm, including the existence of karmic actions, the existence at the time of death, the existence of the intermediate state, and the existence at the time of birth. What is existence in the formless realm? Beyond the form realm existence, further excluding the intermediate state existence, the remainder is existence in the formless realm, including the existence of karmic action, the existence of death, and the existence of birth.

Existence in the desire realm refers to the formations of the desire realm: bodily, verbal, and mental actions; feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness; as well as sense objects; including the precepts (śīla), meditative concentration (samādhi), and wisdom (prajñā) practiced by the five aggregates; and the defilements of greed, hatred, delusion, ignorance, etc. Existence in the form realm refers to the formations of the form realm: bodily and mental actions; feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness; sense objects; and meditative concentration and wisdom. Existence in the formless realm refers to the formations of the formless realm: mental actions; feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness; and the state of meditative absorption.

Original Text: Question: Based on what principle are the seven existences established? Namely, the existences of hell beings, animals, hungry ghosts, humans, gods, karmic existence, and the intermediate existence. Answer: Based on three types of actions performed. The first, that which induces existence, is one [type]. The second, that which proceeds towards existence, is one [type]. The third, that which experiences the fruition of existence, is five [types].

Explanation: Question: Based on what principle are the seven types of existence established – hell, animals, hungry ghosts, humans, gods, karmic existence, and intermediate existence? Answer: Based on the principle of three types of actions performed, they are divided into seven existences: The first type is that which induces the existence in the three realms, which is karmic existence. The second type is that which proceeds towards the existence in the three realms, which is the intermediate existence. The third type is that which experiences the fruition of existence in the three realms, which is the existence of the five destinies [of beings]. Combined, these make the seven types of existence.

Original Text: What is birth (jāti)? It is the initial taking of rebirth in the womb or egg. What is complete formation (samjñā)? It is when the body parts are fully formed within that [womb or egg], but not yet emerged. What is emergence (abhinirvṛtti)? It is coming forth from that [womb or egg]. What is development (vivṛddhi)? It is growth after emerging. What is manifestation (prādurbhāva)? It is the sudden appearance of body parts in moisture-born and transformation-born beings.

Explanation: What is birth? Birth is the moment when womb-born and egg-born beings are first born. What is complete formation? Complete formation is when the physical body parts are mature and complete within the womb or egg, but have not yet been born; commonly said to be awaiting birth. What is emergence? Emergence is being born out of the womb or egg. What is development? Development is the growth stage of beings after birth. What is manifestation? Manifestation is the sudden appearance of body parts in moisture-born and transformation-born beings.

Original Text: What is the acquisition of the aggregates (skandha-pratilambha)? It is the functioning of the five grasping aggregates (pañcopādānaskandha) in those various stages of birth. What is the acquisition of the elements (dhātu-pratilambha)? It is the nature embraced by the causes and conditions of those aggregates. What is the acquisition of the bases (āyatana-pratilambha)? It is the nature embraced by other conditions of those aggregates. What is the arising of the aggregates (skandhānāṃ jāti)? It is the daily sustenance by food and drink that nourishes and causes the life faculty to grow. What is the manifestation [of life] (prādurbhāva)? It is the continuation of existence due to the remaining life force of those aggregates.

Explanation: What does the acquisition of the aggregates mean? The acquisition of the aggregates refers to the functioning of the five grasping aggregates (form, feeling, perception, formations, consciousness) in all stages of existence; it means the aggregates have been born and manifested. What does the acquisition of the elements mean? The acquisition of the elements refers to the nature embraced by the various causes and conditions of the five grasping aggregates. What does the acquisition of the bases mean? The acquisition of the bases refers to the nature embraced by other conditions of the five grasping aggregates, such as the internal six sense bases (āyatana), the external six sense bases, and the point of contact where the faculties and objects come together. What does the arising of the five grasping aggregates mean? It is the five grasping aggregates sustaining life daily with food and drink, nourishing and sustaining the life faculty without perishing. What does manifestation mean? After the birth of the living being, the remaining life force and causes and conditions of the five grasping aggregates allow the living being to continue existing.

The acquisition of the elements can be understood as obtaining the elements (dhātu), which includes the realm of faculties, the realm of objects, and the realm of consciousness. For example, within the five aggregates, each faculty has its own attribute, each object has its own attribute, and each consciousness has its own attribute. Because the attributes differ, there are boundaries between dharmas. When a dharma is born, it is the acquisition of the element.

Original Text: The brief meaning of this link of birth (jāti) is as follows: either the intrinsic nature of birth, or the stage of the place of birth, or that which is born, or that which is embraced by causes and conditions, or that which is sustained and induced, or that which is co-existent and relied upon. This is called the brief meaning. What is decay (jīrṇatā)? It is becoming weak due to inferior support. What is aging (jarā)? It is the deterioration of hair and complexion. What is wrinkling (valī)? It is the slackening and wrinkling of the skin. What is decline (pariṇāma)? It is the diminution of vital heat, no longer having the strength to enjoy sense objects.

Explanation: The brief meaning of this link of birth in the twelve links of dependent origination is as follows: The brief meaning of birth refers either to the intrinsic nature of birth, or to the stage at which birth occurs, or to the born entity, or to being embraced by causes and conditions, or to being sustained and induced, or to that which is co-existent and relied upon. These are the brief meanings of birth. What is decay? Decay is becoming weak and frail due to the inferior condition of the supporting elements. What is aging? Aging is the deterioration of hair, skin, and appearance. What is wrinkling? Wrinkling is the gradual appearance of wrinkles on the skin. What is decline? Decline is the diminution of the vital heat within the body, no longer having vigorous energy to enjoy the objects of the five desires and six sense objects.

The intrinsic nature of birth is the new appearance from non-existence to existence, called birth. The stages of birth are divided into several phases, such as the stages within the mother's womb, birth from the womb, and gradual growth. If A gives birth to B, B is the born entity. The event of birth is a dharma arising from the coming together of causes and conditions; without causes and conditions, there would be no birth. Where there is birth, there must be causes and conditions embracing it; therefore, birth is an empty dharma. Birth is also a dharma induced by spontaneous sustaining. For example, name-and-form (nāmarūpa) spontaneously grows, leading to the birth of the six sense bases; the growth of the six sense bases leads to the birth of contact; the contact of faculty and object gives rise to consciousness, and so on.

Original Text: What is impairment of strength (śaktisya parihāṇi)? It is having many illnesses, lacking the strength to perform tasks. What is the appearance of dark spots (kālasya prādurbhāvaḥ)? It is the appearance of darkness impairing the complexion. What is a bent spine and labored breathing (kṣīṇāyuṣo bhāvaḥ)? It is the posture and bearing of the body, manifesting as extremely heavy panting and coughing. What is a stooped posture (pṛṣṭhasyāvakṛṣṭatā)? It is the seated posture where the body and head are bent forward. What is reliance on a staff (daṇḍādhyavasthānaṃ)? It is the standing posture where one depends on the strength of a staff to stand.

Explanation: What does impairment of strength mean? It means having many illnesses and lacking the energy and strength to perform any tasks. What does the appearance of dark spots mean? This refers to the appearance of darkness on the body, impairing the complexion. What is a bent spine and labored breathing? This refers to the phenomenon of a bent back and labored breathing, manifesting in the body's posture as having no proper bearing in walking, standing, sitting, or lying down, thus leading to severe panting and coughing. What is a stooped posture? This indicates sitting with a posture that should be upright, but the body and head are lowered and bent forward. What is reliance on a staff for standing and walking? It means the body, although attempting an upright posture, must lean on a staff to stand steadily or walk.

Original Text: What is dullness (mūḍhatā)? It is the lying posture characterized by heavy sleep. What is feebleness (durbalatā)? It is the inability to awaken quickly in that state. What is diminution (hāni)? It is the decline of mindfulness and wisdom. What is decline (parihāṇi)? It is the inability to manifest wholesome dharmas due to inferior mindfulness and wisdom. What is maturation of the faculties (indriyāṇāṃ paripākaḥ)? It is the emaciation of the body. What is impairment of function (kriyāyāḥ parihāṇi)? It is the lack of sharpness towards objects. What is decay of formations (saṃskārāṇāṃ jarā)? It is the imminent approach to the end of life.

Explanation: What is dullness? Dullness is the state where the body is lying down, the mind is very dull, and sleep is heavy. What is feebleness? Feebleness is the lack of strength to perceive quickly, insufficient mental energy, and lack of capacity for action. What is diminution? Diminution is the decline of both mindfulness (smṛti) and wisdom (prajñā). What is decline? Decline means that due to the inferiority of mindfulness and wisdom, wholesome dharmas cannot manifest. What is maturation of the faculties? This refers to the body becoming emaciated. What is impairment of function? It means no longer being sharp and alert towards sense objects; reactions become dull. What is decay of formations? It means all bodily, verbal, and mental activities are deteriorating, and death is imminent.

Original Text: What is decay of the body (śarīrasya jarā)? It is the approach of the end of the lifespan, the impending destruction of the body, the loss of capacity for all activities. The brief meaning of this aging is: the deterioration of the support [the body], the deterioration of hair, the deterioration of vitality, the deterioration of vital heat, the deterioration of health, the deterioration of appearance, the deterioration of bearing, the deterioration of the formless faculties [the mind], the deterioration of the form faculties [the senses], the passing of time, the approach of the end of the lifespan. How do the formless faculties deteriorate? For example, the appearance of various mental illnesses, psychological disorders, mental obstacles, etc. What are those beings (te te sattvāḥ)? It refers to the beings in hell and the other six destinies. What are the kinds of sentient beings (sattva-jāti)? It refers to all sentient beings.

Explanation: What is decay of the body? It means the lifespan is about to end, the bodily form is facing destruction, and there is no longer any capacity to perform intended tasks. The brief meaning of aging is: the deterioration of the supporting body, the graying and deterioration of hair, the deterioration of mental state, the decline of the body's vital heat, the deterioration of health, the deterioration of physical appearance, the decline in the bearing of walking, standing, sitting, and lying down, the deterioration of the formless mental faculty, the deterioration of the form faculties (the five senses), the passing of living time, the approach of the end of the lifespan. How does the mental faculty deteriorate? For example, the appearance of various delusional disorders, mental illnesses, psychological obstacles, etc. What are "those beings"? This refers to beings in hell and the other six destinies. What are the "kinds of sentient beings"? It means all sentient beings.

Original Text: What is termination (cyuti)? It is the death of sentient beings through the separation of the limbs. What is dissolution (maraṇa)? It is the death of sentient beings through the dissolution of the limbs. What is destruction (bheda)? It is the separation of consciousness from the body. What is extinction (nirvṛtti)? It is the cessation of the physical sense faculties. What is the relinquishment of lifespan (āyuḥsaṃkṣaya)? It is the stage where the breath is about to cease. What is the relinquishment of warmth (ūṣmāpagama)? It is the motionless state where the aggregates are abandoned. What is the cessation of the life faculty (jīvitendriyanirodha)? It is death at the appointed time.

Explanation: What is termination? Termination is the point where the lives of all sentient beings come to an end, the separation of the four great elements begins, the physical body disintegrates, and death is near. What is dissolution? Dissolution means all sentient beings die through the dissolution of the bodily limbs and the separation of the four great elements. What is destruction? Destruction means all eight consciousnesses have left the body. What is extinction? Extinction means all five physical sense faculties have ceased. What is the relinquishment of lifespan? It means the breath is almost exhausted. What is the relinquishment of warmth? It means the five aggregates enter a state of immobility and are abandoned. What is the cessation of the life faculty? It means death has occurred.

Original Text: What is death (mṛtyu)? It is encountering a violent condition and dying prematurely. What is the exhaustion of the life span (kālasyātyayaḥ)? It is the state shortly after death. Also, the activity of the demon of death (mṛtyu-māra) is called the exhaustion of the life span. The brief meaning of this death is: death itself, the manner of death, the distinctions of death, and the state after death. This is called the brief meaning. Thus is explained the detailed differentiation of dependent origination.

Explanation: What is death? Death means encountering a very strong adverse condition and dying before the natural lifespan ends, meaning an untimely or violent death. What is the exhaustion of the life span? It means having just died not long ago. The activity of the demon of death is also called the exhaustion of the life span. The brief meaning of this death includes death itself, how death occurs, the various distinctions of death, and the destination after death. This is the brief meaning of death, also called the detailed differentiation of the dependent origination of death.