Exposition on the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination in the Yogācārabhūmi
Section 2 The Sequential Order of Dependent Origination
Original text: 问。何因缘故。无明等诸有支。作如是次第说。答。诸愚痴者。要先愚于。所应知事。次即于彼。发起邪行。由邪行故。令心颠倒。心颠倒故。结生相续。生相续故。诸根圆满。根圆满故。二受用境。
Explanation: Question: What causes and conditions make the twelve links of existence, such as ignorance, be expounded in such an order, taught according to such a sequence? Answer: All foolish and deluded people are first ignorant of the things they should know, and then, with regard to what they do not understand, they initiate deviant and improper actions. Because of engaging in deviant actions, the mind becomes inverted; because the mind is inverted, the bonds of afflictions cause life to continue unbroken. Because life continues unbroken, the six faculties become complete; because the six faculties are complete, there are the retributive enjoyment of the five-aggregate body as the direct result and the enjoyment of the living environment as the circumstantial result.
Original text: 受用境故。若耽着若希求。由希求故。于方觅时。烦恼滋长。烦恼滋长故。发起后有。爱非爱业。由所起业。滋长力故。于五趣生死中。苦果生。苦果生已。有老死等苦。谓内身变异。所引老死苦。及境界变异。所引忧叹苦。热恼之苦。是故。世尊如是次第。说十二支。
Explanation: Because of experiencing sense objects, one becomes immersed in them unable to extricate oneself, or develops further longing. Because of longing, while searching everywhere for what is sought, afflictions grow and multiply. Because afflictions grow, volitional actions of the future existence in the three realms—lovable and unlovable karmic actions—arise. Because of the growing force of the karma thus generated, painful results arise within the birth-and-death of the five destinies. Once the painful results have arisen, there are the sufferings of old age and death and so forth—namely, the suffering of old age and death induced by changes in the inner body, and the suffering of sorrow, lamentation, and anguish induced by changes in external circumstances. Therefore, the World-Honored One expounded the twelve links in this sequence.
Original text: 复有次第差别。谓依二种缘。建立缘起次第。一内身缘。二受用境界缘。内身缘。前六支所摄。受用境界缘。后六支所摄。先于内身。起我执等愚。由此不了。诸业所引。苦果异熟故。发起诸业。
Explanation: There are also other differences in sequence, namely, the sequence of dependent origination is established on the basis of two kinds of conditions: one is the condition of the inner body, that is, the five-aggregate body; the other is the condition of experiencing sense objects, that is, the living environment. The condition of the inner body is subsumed under the first six links; the condition of experiencing sense objects is subsumed under the latter six links. Sentient beings first develop the delusion of self-grasping and the like toward the inner body; because of this delusion, not understanding that all karmic actions can induce painful karmic results of retribution, they initiate all karmic actions.
Here it is said that the first six links subsume the inner five-aggregate body. Through ignorance, karmic actions are created and name-and-form arises; from name-and-form the six sense bases arise; once there are the six sense bases, there are the latter six links. The latter six links are all the sense objects experienced by the five-aggregate body, and are also the consequences of the six sense bases' contact. Thus the twelve links of dependent origination are established on the basis of the inner body and the experienced sense objects.
Original text: 既发起已。即随彼业。多起寻思。由业与识。为助伴故。能感当来三种苦果。谓根初起。所摄苦果。根圆满所摄苦果。受用境界所摄苦果。即名色为先。触为最后。
Explanation: Once the karmic actions have been initiated, one repeatedly generates searching deliberation (manasikāra) following those karmic actions. Because karmic actions and consciousness serve as mutual aids, they can induce three kinds of painful results in the future: the painful result subsumed under the initial arising of the faculties, the painful result subsumed under the completion of the faculties, and the painful result subsumed under the experiencing of sense objects. These appear with name-and-form first and contact last.
Original text: 又于现法中。依触缘受。发起于爱。由受用境界缘。广起追求。或由事业门。或由利养门。或由戒禁门。或由解脱门。发起欲求。内身求。邪解脱求。如是求时。令先所起烦恼。及业所引。五趣生死果生。既得生已。老死随逐。
Explanation: Also, within presently existing dharmas, relying on feeling that arises conditioned by contact, craving arises. Because of the condition of experiencing sense objects, extensive pursuit and seeking arise—either through the gateway of livelihood and occupation, or through the gateway of gain and offerings, or through the gateway of precept-observances, or through the gateway of liberation—giving rise to the craving for desires, the craving for the inner body, and the craving for deviant liberation. While seeking in this way, the afflictions previously generated and the results of birth-and-death in the five destinies induced by karma come to arise. Once birth has been obtained, old age and death follow in pursuit.
Original text: 复有次第差别。谓由三种有情聚。一乐出世清净。二乐世间清净。三乐着境界。由初聚故。灭诸缘起。增白净品。由第二有情聚故。不如实知。诸谛道理。若住正念。或作福业。或作有漏。修所引不动业。若不住正念。便发非福业。或起追悔所引。或不追悔。欢喜所引。心相续住。
Explanation: There are further differences in sequence, involving three groups of sentient beings: the first delights in supramundane purity; the second delights in mundane purity; the third delights in and clings to sense objects. Because of the first group, all dependent origination is extinguished and pure, undefiled karmic seeds increase. Because of the second group of sentient beings, who do not truly understand the principles of the truths: if they abide in right mindfulness, they may perform meritorious karma, or perform tainted imperturbable formations induced by cultivation—for example, pure meditative concentration, reaching the fourth dhyāna where body and mind are unmoving; if their minds do not abide in right mindfulness, they will perform unmeritorious formations. Some, having performed unmeritorious formations, feel remorse; others, having performed unmeritorious formations, feel not remorse but delight, thereby causing the mind to abide in continuous succession, unable to be extinguished.
Original text: 彼又如前。于下中上。生处次第。能感当来。三种苦果。谓名色为先。触为最后。由第三有情聚故。依现受用境所生受。于现法中。如前次第。起后六支。谓受为先。老死为后。
Explanation: These sentient beings, as before, can induce, in sequential order of lower, middle, and higher places of birth, three corresponding painful results in the future to accompany them. Within these first six links of causes and conditions, name-and-form comes first and contact comes last, and thus the painful results appear. If there were no six sense bases and no contact with the six sense objects, there would be no perception, and suffering would not be felt.
Because of the third group of sentient beings, relying on the feeling born from presently experiencing sense objects, within presently existing dharmas, in the same sequence as before, the latter six links arise—feeling, craving, grasping, existence, birth, old age and death—with feeling first and old age and death last. (What has been discussed above is the contemplation of the twelve links in forward order.)
Although the second group of sentient beings delights in mundane purity, because of ignorance they do not know the correct principle of liberation, and their minds are still impure. True purity is the purity of wisdom; only by understanding the true principles of the world and pursuing the truth can there be true purity. Otherwise, even performing wholesome karma, it is still tainted, afflicted, and subject to the suffering of birth and death. The third group of sentient beings who delight in and cling to sense objects have even heavier ignorance, not knowing that all sense objects are arising-and-ceasing, impermanent, and illusory. Delighting in sense objects is delighting in birth and death; being turned by sense objects—joy, anger, sorrow, happiness, grief, and distress—is truly foolish delusion.
Original text: 问。何因缘故。逆次第中。老死为先。说诸缘起。答。依止宣说。谛道理故。以生及老死。能显苦谛。如世尊言。新名色灭。为上首法。
Explanation: Question: What causes and conditions make the twelve links of dependent origination be expounded with old age and death first in the reverse sequence? Answer: This is because it relies on the principles of the truths as proclaimed by the World-Honored One, for birth and old age and death can reveal the truth of suffering. As the World-Honored One said, the cessation of new name-and-form is the foremost dharma. When new name-and-form ceases and does not arise, the problem of old age and death is solved; without old age and death, there is liberation and nirvāṇa.
Original text: 问。何故不言。诸无明灭为上首耶。答。依心解脱者。而施设故。由彼于现法中。种子苦及当来苦果。不生而灭。故说名色为先。受为最后。得究竟灭。
又于现法中。受诸受时。爱及随眠。永拔不起。说名为灭。由彼灭故。以彼为先。余支亦灭。如是等类。宣说缘起次第应知。
Explanation: Question: Why does it not say that the cessation of all ignorance is the foremost dharma? Answer: The World-Honored One set forth the cessation of new name-and-form as the foremost dharma in accordance with those whose minds are liberated. When the mind is liberated, name-and-form of future lives will no longer arise, and old age and death cease. Because, within presently existing dharmas, the suffering in the seeds and the painful results to be experienced in the future cease without arising, the reverse sequence of dependent origination is said to have name-and-form first and feeling last, whereby the suffering of birth and death can be ultimately extinguished.
Also, within presently existing dharmas, when experiencing the various feelings, if craving and its latent tendencies (anuśaya) are forever uprooted and no longer arise, this is called cessation. Because of that cessation, with craving first, the other links also cease. One should know that teachings of this kind are the proclamation of the sequence of dependent origination.
Original text: 问。何故缘起。说为缘起。答。由烦恼系缚。往诸趣中。数数生起。故名缘起。此依字释名。复次依托众缘。速谢灭已。续和合生。故名缘起。此依刹那义释。复次众缘过去。而不舍离。依自相续。而得生起。故名缘起。如说此有故彼有。此生故彼生非余。依此义故。释名应知。
Explanation: Question: Why is the dharma of dependent origination called "dependent origination"? Answer: Because of the bondage of afflictions, one is reborn into the various destinies, arising again and again; hence it is called dependent origination. This explains the name according to the literal meaning. Furthermore, the five-aggregate body relies on numerous conditions; after swiftly perishing, it arises again through the continuing conjunction of conditions; hence it is called dependent origination. This explains the name according to the meaning of momentariness (kṣaṇa). Furthermore, although the numerous conditions have passed away, the five-aggregate body does not abandon them; it arises again relying on its own continuity; hence it is called dependent origination. This is as stated: "When this exists, that exists; when this arises, that arises—not otherwise." One should know that the name is explained according to this meaning.
Original text: 复次。数数谢灭。复相续起。故名缘起。此依数坏数灭义释。复次。于过去世。觉缘性已。等相续起。故名缘起。如世尊言。我已觉悟。正起宣说。即由此名。展转传说。故名缘起。
Explanation: Furthermore, the five-aggregate body perishes countless times and arises again in continuous succession; hence it is called dependent origination. This explains the name according to the meaning of repeated destruction and repeated cessation. Furthermore, in past lives, having awakened to the nature of conditioned arising of the world of the five aggregates, a similar five-aggregate body arose in continuity; hence it is called dependent origination. As the World-Honored One said: "I have already awakened, and righteously emerged into the world to proclaim the dharma of causes and conditions." It is because of this name of dependent origination being transmitted from one to another that it is called dependent origination.
Original text: 问。无明望行。为几种缘。答。望诸色行。为增上缘。望无色行。为三缘。谓等无间缘。所缘缘。增上缘。如是余支。为缘多少。应如此知。谓有色支。望有色支。为一增上缘。望无色支为二缘。谓所缘缘。及增上缘。若无色支。望有色支。唯为一缘。望无色支为三缘。谓等无间缘。所缘缘。增上缘。
Explanation: Question: How many conditions does ignorance constitute with respect to volitional formations? Answer: With respect to formations of material form (bodily and verbal formations), ignorance is only one condition—the predominant condition (adhipati-pratyaya); with respect to formations of non-material form (mental formations), ignorance is three conditions: the sequential condition (samanantara-pratyaya), the object condition (ālambana-pratyaya), and the predominant condition. How many conditions the remaining links constitute should be known as follows: a material link with respect to a material link is one predominant condition; with respect to a non-material link, it is two conditions: the object condition and the predominant condition. A non-material link with respect to a material link is only one condition; with respect to a non-material link, it is three conditions: the sequential condition, the object condition, and the predominant condition.
Links involving material form relate to body and speech, being the actions of body and speech; links of non-material form relate to the mind, being mental actions. A material link can induce both material and non-material links, and a non-material link can also induce both material and non-material links; material and non-material links can mutually subsume each other.
Only between non-material links are there three conditions, because they all belong to the mental and mental-concomitant (caitta) portion, are of the same kind, and can mutually serve as objects and mutually enhance each other. Between material links there is only the predominant condition, one material form promoting the arising of another. But a material link with respect to a non-material link constitutes two conditions: the object condition and the predominant condition, because the material form is the object-aspect (nimitta) upon which the non-material link depends, hence the object condition; and the material form can promote the arising of the non-material link, hence the predominant condition. Whereas a non-material link with respect to a material link can only be the predominant condition.
Explanation of the Concepts of the Three Conditions:
1. The sequential condition (samanantara-pratyaya) means a condition that is of equal kind and uninterrupted. Consciousness and consciousness are equal; consciousness and mental concomitants are equal, and they are consciousness of the same kind. For example, mind consciousness with mind consciousness is a sequential condition; manas with manas is a sequential condition; eye consciousness with eye consciousness is a sequential condition, and so on. Also, a mental concomitant and its associated consciousness are sequential conditions of each other, or one may say that a consciousness and its associated mental concomitants are sequential conditions of each other.
However, not all mental concomitants are sequential conditions of their associated consciousness, because mental concomitants do not exist at all times and places, accompanying consciousness; only those mental concomitants that accompany consciousness at all times and places are sequential conditions of that consciousness. When a mental concomitant no longer exists, it is no longer a sequential condition of the consciousness. For example, ignorance, contact, and attention (manaskāra). A sequential condition is not forever a sequential condition; it is a sequential condition only during a certain period of time. When ignorance ceases, when consciousness no longer feels or perceives, these mental concomitants are no longer sequential conditions of consciousness. Ignorance is a dharma that consciousness takes as object, a dharma that consciousness possesses, associated with consciousness; since beginningless kalpas it has accompanied the functioning of consciousness without separation. Therefore ignorance is a sequential condition of consciousness, and also its object condition and predominant condition.
2. The object condition (ālambana-pratyaya) means that all dharmas are the object-aspects (nimitta) upon which consciousness depends; the object-aspect is also a condition, namely the object condition of consciousness. The object condition is also called the object-sphere, divided into the proximate object condition and the remote object condition. The proximate object condition is the dharma that consciousness directly takes as object, the directly corresponding dharma, inseparable from the dharma. The remote object condition is the dharma that consciousness takes as object indirectly, separate from consciousness, not a dharma that consciousness can directly cognize. For example, person A's material body and consciousness are a remote object condition for person B's consciousness; B's consciousness can exist independently of A's five-aggregate body, and whether A exists or not does not affect the functioning of B's consciousness. Another example: the essential realm (dravya-ālambana) manifested by the eighth consciousness is a remote object condition of consciousness; consciousness cannot directly cognize the essential realm, but can only cognize the real realm (bhūta-ālambana), the accompanied realm (sādāraṇa), and the subjectively imagined realm transformed from it. Consciousness also cannot directly cognize seeds, so seeds are also remote object conditions of consciousness. Apart from these, all are proximate object conditions of consciousness.
3. The predominant condition (adhipati-pratyaya) means that a dharma can serve as the basis and aiding condition for the arising of another dharma, playing an assisting, supporting, and propelling role in the production of the other dharma, rather than a direct and primary role; it is not the principal factor in the arising of the dharma.
Explanation of the Three Conditions Among the Twelve Links
From the link of ignorance to volitional formations: ignorance is the ignorance of manas, a non-material link; only non-material consciousness can have ignorance; material dharmas do not involve clarity or ignorance. Only when manas has ignorance is there volitional formation, where formations are divided into formations of material form, such as bodily formations and verbal formations, and mental formations of non-material form. Ignorance is only the predominant condition of material formations, able to promote the arising, development, and transformation of material formations. Material dharmas are not mental dharmas and have no sequential condition or object condition; only mental dharmas have sequential and object conditions. Therefore bodily and verbal formations have no sequential or object conditions, while mental formations have sequential, object, and predominant conditions. Ignorance exists simultaneously with manas, never interrupted; where there is manas there is ignorance. Manas takes ignorance as object and then there is formation, so ignorance is the object condition of manas; the ignorance of manas can also promote the continuous activity of the six consciousnesses, becoming the predominant condition of formations.
From formations to consciousness: formations cause the six consciousnesses to run continuously, causing karmic seeds to be deposited. Material formations are the object condition and predominant condition of the six consciousnesses; non-material formations are the sequential condition, object condition, and predominant condition of the six consciousnesses. From consciousness to name-and-form: the continuous running of the six consciousnesses is the predominant condition of the future material body, and the sequential condition, object condition, and predominant condition of the future name (feeling, perception, volitional formations, consciousness).
The link from name-and-form to the six sense bases is very complex: name is the predominant condition of the first five bases, and the sequential condition, object condition, and predominant condition of the subsequent manas base; form is the predominant condition of the first five faculty bases, and the object condition and predominant condition of the mental base. Because the five faculty bases are material form and not consciousness, they have no sequential or object conditions.
From the six sense bases to contact: the manas base is the sequential condition, object condition, and predominant condition of manas's contact, and the predominant condition of the five faculties' contact; the first five faculty bases are the predominant condition of the five faculties' contact, and the object condition and predominant condition of manas's contact. From contact to feeling: manas's contact is the sequential condition, object condition, and predominant condition of the six consciousnesses' feeling; where there is feeling there must be contact; once contact is severed, feeling disappears. The five faculties' contact is the object condition and predominant condition of the six consciousnesses' feeling; the sequential conditions of the six consciousnesses' feeling are the Ālayavijñāna, manas, and the five sense consciousnesses.
From feeling to craving it is the same: feeling is the sequential condition, object condition, and predominant condition of craving; only by equally and uninterruptedly conditioning on feeling can there be craving. The object condition of craving is feeling; without feeling there is no craving; feeling can increase and induce craving. The feeling of the five sense consciousnesses and the feeling of mind consciousness are all unified in manas; the craving and grasping of the five sense consciousnesses and of mind consciousness are also unified in manas, being controlled by manas. So in summary, they are the feeling, craving, and grasping of manas.
From craving to grasping is likewise: craving is the sequential condition, object condition, and predominant condition of grasping; grasping equally and uninterruptedly conditions on craving; without craving there is no grasping. The object condition of grasping is craving, and craving can increase grasping. From grasping to existence: grasping is only the predominant condition of existence, not the sequential condition nor the object condition. From existence to birth: existence is the predominant condition of the birth of form, and the object condition and predominant condition of the birth of name, but not the sequential condition; the sequential conditions of birth are the Ālayavijñāna, manas, and the karmic seeds of the six consciousnesses. From birth to old age and death: the birth of form is the predominant condition of old age and death, not the sequential or object condition; the birth of name is the sequential condition, object condition, and predominant condition of old age and death.
Original text: 问。何故诸支相望。无因缘耶。答。因缘者。自体种子缘所显故。问。若诸支相望。无因缘者。何故说言。依因果体性。建立缘起耶。答。依增上缘所摄。引发因。牵引因。生起因故。说名为因。
Explanation: Question: Why do these links, in mutual relation, lack the causal condition (hetu-pratyaya)? Answer: The causal condition is that which is manifested by the condition of the self-nature seeds of the links. Question: If the links in mutual relation lack the causal condition, why is it said that dependent origination is established on the basis of the nature of cause and effect? (The nature of cause and effect is that a prior cause can produce a subsequent effect, and the effect is the dharma of dependent origination.) Answer: These links rely on what is subsumed under the predominant condition; the prior links are the inducing cause (ākṣepaka-hetu), the drawing cause, and the arising cause of the subsequent links, provisionally called "cause," and the subsequent links are the effect. Thus it is said that dependent origination is established on the basis of the nature of cause and effect.
The causal condition is the most important of the four conditions, being the direct cause of the production of all dharmas. Seeds belong to causal-condition dharma; seeds are in the causal position, while the eleven links (other than ignorance) are in the effect position. Where there is a cause there must be an effect; "condition" also means "cause"—it is the seeds that induced the appearance of the eleven links. The seeds refer to the karmic seeds left by the bodily, verbal, and mental actions of the six consciousnesses. This meaning is extremely profound: the self-nature seeds that can produce the various links all come from the Ālayavijñāna and are all stored in the Ālayavijñāna. In other words, these links are all produced by the Ālayavijñāna; the Ālayavijñāna and the self-nature seeds are the causal conditions of these links.
Among the twelve links, only in the link of consciousness conditioning name-and-form is the birth of name-and-form seed-based: the seeds of the bodily, verbal, and mental actions of the six consciousnesses of past lives are the causal condition for the birth of this life's name-and-form. The birth of the subsequent links of name-and-form has no seeds; each link is induced by the preceding link—that is, the preceding link is the predominant condition, or the sequential condition, or the object condition of the subsequent link, but there is no seed causal condition. The same applies to ignorance conditioning formations and formations conditioning consciousness: no seed causal condition, only sequential, object, and predominant conditions. But broadly speaking, the birth and functioning of the latter eleven links of the twelve links are not without seeds either; each is subsumed under certain karmic seeds, limited by karmic seeds, and also subsumed under the seeds of the seven great elements.
Original text: 问。几支是引因所摄。答。从无明乃至受。问。几支是生因所摄。答。从爱乃至有。问。几支是生引二因果所摄耶。答。于现法后法中。识等乃至受。于生老死位。所摄诸支。
Explanation: Question: How many of the twelve links are subsumed under the inducing cause? Answer: Ignorance conditioning formations, formations conditioning consciousness, consciousness conditioning name-and-form, name-and-form conditioning the six sense bases, the six sense bases conditioning contact, and contact conditioning feeling—these seven links are subsumed under the inducing cause, able to induce the subsequent link. Question: How many links are subsumed under the arising cause? Answer: Feeling conditioning craving, craving conditioning grasping, and grasping conditioning existence—these three links are subsumed under the arising cause, able to give rise to the links of birth and of old age and death. Question: How many links are subsumed under both the arising cause and the inducing cause, cause and effect? Answer: Within presently existing dharmas and dharmas of future lives, the four links of consciousness conditioning name-and-form, name-and-form conditioning the six sense bases, the six sense bases conditioning contact, and contact conditioning feeling are subsumed under both the arising cause and the inducing cause with respect to the links at the stage of birth and of old age and death.
Ignorance can induce formations but cannot give birth to formations; "induce" means to guide, being an aiding and predominant condition, whereas "birth" is direct production. Ignorance has no substance, no mind, no seeds, and cannot give birth to formations; it can only serve as the trigger by which the Ālayavijñāna gives birth to formations. Without this trigger, the Ālayavijñāna cannot give birth to formations. Formations are the inducing cause of the six consciousnesses (karmic seeds), not the direct cause that gives birth to the six consciousnesses (karmic seeds). Formations have no self-nature and no seeds, so they cannot give birth to the six consciousnesses (karmic seeds); it is the Ālayavijñāna that, by means of formations, gives birth to the six consciousnesses (karmic seeds). The karmic seeds of the six consciousnesses are the causal condition of name-and-form but cannot directly give birth to name-and-form; it is the Ālayavijñāna that, by means of the condition of the six consciousnesses' karmic seeds, gives birth to name-and-form. The seeds deposited by the actions of the six consciousnesses can induce the name-and-form of future lives.
Name-and-form is the inducing cause of the six sense bases but cannot directly give birth to them; it is the Ālayavijñāna that, by means of name-and-form, gives birth to the six sense bases, among which the mental base already existed originally and was not newly born from the Ālayavijñāna. The six sense bases are the inducing cause of contact, able to induce contact but not directly give birth to it, because the six sense bases have no self-nature and no seeds, and thus cannot give birth to contact; it is the Ālayavijñāna that, by means of the six sense bases as the inducing cause, gives birth to contact. Contact is the inducing cause of feeling, able to induce feeling but not directly give birth to it, because contact has no self-nature, is not consciousness, and has no seeds; it is the Ālayavijñāna that, by means of contact, gives birth to feeling.
The three links of craving, grasping, and existence are the arising causes of the future links of birth and of old age and death. If there were no craving, grasping, and existence, the five-aggregate body would cease and one would enter nirvāṇa without remainder, with no birth and no old age and death. Therefore the three links of craving, grasping, and existence are the arising causes of the future links.
Original text: 问。若说无明。以不如理作意为因。何因缘故。于缘起教中不先说耶。答。彼唯是不断因故。非杂染因故。所以者何。非不愚者。起此作意。依杂染因。说缘起教。无明自性是染污。不如理作意自性非染污。故彼不能染污无明。然由无明力所染污。又生杂染业。烦恼力之所熏。发业之初因。谓初缘起。是故不说不如理作意。
Explanation: Question: If it is said that ignorance arises with non-proper attention (ayoniśo-manaskāra) as its cause, why is non-proper attention not taught first in the teaching of dependent origination, with ignorance taught directly instead? Answer: Non-proper attention is only the cause of non-cessation, not the cause of defilement of the three natures—wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate. Why is this so? Because it is precisely those who are foolish and ignorant who give rise to non-proper attention; without ignorance, non-proper attention would not arise. Therefore ignorance comes first, and the teaching of dependent origination is expounded on the basis of the defiled cause of afflictions.
The self-nature of ignorance is defiled and afflicted, whereas the self-nature of non-proper attention is not defiled or afflicted; therefore non-proper attention cannot defile ignorance, but is itself defiled by the power of ignorance. Moreover, the defiled karma of arising is perfumed by the power of afflictions; the power of afflictions is the power of ignorance. The initial cause of the arising of karma is the initial dependent origination. Therefore non-proper attention is not mentioned first.
Original text: 问。何故不说自体。为自体缘耶。答。由彼自体。若不得余缘。于自体杂染。不能增长。亦不损减。是故不说。问。何因缘故。福行不动行。由正简择功力而起。仍说用无明为缘耶。答。由不了达。世俗苦因为缘。起非福行。由不了达。胜义苦因为缘。生福及不动行。是故亦说。彼以无明为缘。
Explanation: Question: Why does it not say that the self-nature is the condition of itself? Answer: If there is only the self-nature without other conditions, the defilement of that self-nature neither increases nor decreases; therefore it is not said. For example, with ignorance: if there are no other conditions, ignorance itself will not increase or decrease. Only when the five aggregates encounter wholesome and unwholesome conditions and are perfumed can ignorance increase or decrease.
Question: What causes and conditions make meritorious formations and imperturbable formations, which arise through the power of correct discernment, still be said to arise with ignorance as their condition? Answer: Because of not comprehending that the cause of worldly suffering is the condition of greed, hatred, and delusion, unmeritorious formations arise; because of not comprehending that the cause of suffering in the ultimate sense is the condition of ignorance, meritorious formations and imperturbable formations arise. Therefore it is also said that these arise with ignorance as their condition.
The above passage means that sentient beings, because they cannot fully understand worldly suffering, create unwholesome karmic actions that diminish merit; because they cannot fully understand the emptiness principle revealed by the ultimate truth, they create wholesome actions that increase worldly merit and neutral, undefiled imperturbable formations. Sentient beings' wholesome actions of cultivating merit are for worldly conditioned enjoyment, not for the supramundane pure path—this is ignorance. Sentient beings also, because they cannot comprehend the emptiness meaning revealed by the ultimate truth, cultivate neutral imperturbable formations, such as the pure meditative concentration cultivated by non-Buddhists—single-mindedly entering samādhi, doing neither good nor evil in the world, with worldly merit neither increased nor diminished. This likewise stems from the ignorance of not knowing what liberation is; it is also clinging to the conditioned karmic actions of worldly meditative concentration, equally a suffering karma that binds one to birth and death, unable to attain liberation.
The noble ones who comprehend ultimate emptiness have ignorance destroyed, their minds in nonaction—without marks, without fabrication, without aspiration (animitta, apraṇihita, ākiñcanya)—not creating karma of increase, diminution of merit, or imperturbable formations for worldly benefit. Even when they create meritorious formations, it is for the supramundane Buddha path and for the benefit of sentient beings. Therefore noble ones do not pursue worldly fame, gain, wealth, sensuality, name, food, and sleep; they do not create hype for great reputation, do not pursue power and status, do not compete with sentient beings for benefits, and do not hope to be revered. Rather, they see the five-aggregate world as empty, their minds utterly without seeking and without attainment. If it is the opposite, it shows the mind is not empty, that ultimate emptiness has not been comprehended, and such a person is not a noble sage.
Original text: 问。如经中说。诸业以贪嗔痴为缘。何故此中。唯说痴为缘耶。答。此中通说。福非福不动业缘。贪嗔痴缘。唯生非福业故。
Explanation: Question: As the sūtras say, all karmic actions of sentient beings are created with greed, hatred, and delusion as conditions. Why does this text only mention delusion as the condition? Answer: Here the conditions of all three kinds of karma—meritorious, unmeritorious, and imperturbable formations—are comprehensively said to be ignorance and delusion, whereas greed, hatred, and delusion as conditions can only give rise to unmeritorious karma.
With the afflictions of greed, hatred, and delusion as conditions, one will certainly create unmeritorious evil karma, not meritorious karma or pure imperturbable karma. But with ignorance as the condition, all three kinds of karmic actions can be created, not limited to unmeritorious evil karma. Many people do good deeds out of ignorance, because they do not comprehend worldly suffering and emptiness, and their minds cling to existence while doing good; even though wholesome, it is still ignorance.
Original text: 问。身业语业。思所发起。是则行亦缘行。何故但说。无明缘行。答。依发起一切行缘而说故。及依生善染污。思缘而说故。
Explanation: Question: Bodily karma and verbal karma are initiated by volition (cetanā); thus formations also condition formations—bodily and verbal formations also arise conditioned on formations. Why does it only say that ignorance conditions formations? Answer: This is said on the basis of the condition that initiates all formations, including the formations of manas (the volitional mental concomitant): all formations arise from ignorance; manas's volition operates only because of ignorance, leading to the production of bodily and verbal formations. It is also said on the basis of the condition that gives rise to wholesome and defiled volition: the condition for arising wholesome volition and the condition for arising defiled volition are both ignorance. Therefore it says ignorance conditions formations, and does not say that the formations of the volitional mental concomitant condition bodily and verbal formations.
Original text: 问。识亦以名色为缘。何故此中。但说行为缘耶。答。行为识杂染缘。能引能生。后有果故。非如名色。但为所依所缘。生起缘故。
Explanation: Question: The six consciousnesses also arise with name-and-form as their condition. Why does this text only say that the six consciousnesses arise with bodily, verbal, and mental actions as their condition? Answer: Bodily, verbal, and mental actions are the defiling condition of the wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral seeds of the six consciousnesses; the defiled seeds, or the defiled six consciousnesses, can induce and give rise to the karmic results of future name-and-form. Therefore bodily, verbal, and mental actions are the condition of the six consciousnesses, able to induce the appearance of karmic seeds. Unlike name-and-form, which is only the predominant condition upon which the birth of the six consciousnesses depends, formations are the object condition of the six consciousnesses, able to directly induce the birth of the karmic seeds of the six consciousnesses.
Formations condition consciousness: when bodily, verbal, and mental actions are defiled, the six consciousnesses are defiled, and there are defiled seeds and future defiled retributive results. But bodily, verbal, and mental actions are the actions of the six consciousnesses; without the six consciousnesses there are no bodily, verbal, or mental actions. Therefore bodily, verbal, and mental actions do not induce the six consciousnesses themselves, but induce the karmic seeds created by the six consciousnesses—that is, they induce the defiling condition of the six consciousnesses. Why are bodily, verbal, and mental actions defiled? Because the mental formations of manas are defiled, the bodily, verbal, and mental actions induced by manas are defiled, the six consciousnesses are defiled, and the seeds and results are defiled. After the defiled result of name-and-form is born, the six consciousnesses will arise depending on the defiled name-and-form; name-and-form is the predominant condition for the birth of the six consciousnesses, not the inducing condition.
Original text: 问。名色亦由。大种所造。及由触生。何故但说。识为缘耶。答。识能为彼。新生因故。彼既生已。或正生时。大种及触。唯能与彼。为建立因。
Explanation: Question: Name-and-form is also created by the seeds of the seven great elements and is also born through the condition of contact—there is mental contact at the time of entering the womb and contact of the six sense bases at the time of exiting the womb. Why does this text only say that name-and-form arises with the six consciousnesses as its condition? Answer: The six consciousnesses can serve as the cause of the new birth of name-and-form. After name-and-form has been born, or while it is being born, the seeds of the six great elements—earth, water, fire, wind, space, and consciousness—and contact can only serve as the establishing cause, the sustaining cause, and the transforming cause for name-and-form to become the five aggregates. The two kinds of causes function before and after the birth of name-and-form respectively, with different functions. From the important perspective of the inducing cause, it is said that consciousness conditions name-and-form; therefore it does not say that the great elements and contact are the conditions for the birth of name-and-form.
Original text: 问。如经中说。六界为缘。得入母胎。何故此中。唯说识界。答。若有识界。决定于母胎中。精血大种。腹穴无阙故。又识界胜故。又依一切生。一切有生时而说故。
Explanation: Question: As the sūtras say, only with the six elements—earth, water, fire, wind, space, and consciousness—as conditions can one enter the mother's womb. Why does this text only mention the consciousness element? Answer: If the Ālayavijñāna element is present in the womb, there will certainly be the semen and blood composed of the seeds of the five great elements needed by the fetus in the womb, pervading the body faculties, the five viscera and six bowels, and the seven orifices, without any deficiency; therefore it is said that name-and-form has the Ālayavijñāna element as its condition. Furthermore, because the Ālayavijñāna element is a mental dharma and the most supreme among all dharmas, it is said that one enters the womb with the Ālayavijñāna as the condition. Furthermore, because it is said on the basis of the birth of all dharmas and the birth of all existence that the Ālayavijñāna is the most supreme, being the direct causal condition for entering the womb and for the birth of name-and-form.
The consciousness element that can enter the womb must be the Ālayavijñāna, not the six consciousnesses, because upon entering the womb the six consciousnesses cease; at the beginning in the womb there are no six consciousnesses, but there is the Ālayavijñāna. Moreover, the form of the fertilized egg in the womb is produced, transformed, and held by the Ālayavijñāna giving birth to the seeds of the great elements of earth, water, fire, wind, and space; the seventh consciousness in the womb needs the Ālayavijñāna to provide consciousness seeds for its maintenance. Therefore what can enter the womb is the consciousness element, the Ālayavijñāna; the elements of earth, water, fire, wind, and space are not mentioned, because where there is the Ālayavijñāna there will be the seeds of the great elements of earth, water, fire, wind, and space.
Original text: 问。六处亦以饮食为缘。何故此中。但说名色为缘耶。答。此中说名色。是彼生因故。彼既生已。亦以饮食。为任持因。
Explanation: Question: The eye base, ear base, nose base, tongue base, body base, and mental base also arise with food and drink as their condition; with food and drink, name-and-form grows, and the five bases among the six sense bases grow along with it. Why does this text only say that the six sense bases are born with name-and-form as their condition? Answer: Here it says that name-and-form is the cause of the birth of the six sense bases; the six sense bases are born directly upon name-and-form, and without name-and-form the six sense bases could not possibly exist. The initial name in the womb is the mental base, and the five bases are gradually born upon the form of the fertilized egg; therefore name-and-form is the causal condition for the birth of the six sense bases. After the six sense bases are born, they also take food and drink as the condition for their spontaneous sustenance; therefore it does not say that food and drink are the causal condition for the birth of the six sense bases.
Original text: 问。触以三和为缘。何故此中。但说六处为缘。答。若有六处。定有余二无阙故。又六处胜故。由六处摄二种故。
Explanation: Question: Contact arises with the conjunction of the three—faculty, object, and consciousness—as its condition. Why does this text only say that contact is born with the six sense bases as its condition? Answer: If there are the six sense bases, there will certainly be the other two—the six sense objects and the six consciousnesses—without deficiency; therefore the six sense bases are taken as the representative. Furthermore, because among the three, the six sense bases are superior to the six sense objects and the six consciousnesses, playing the decisive role in the conjunction of the three, and the six sense bases subsume the six sense objects and the six consciousnesses, it is said that contact arises with the six sense bases as its condition.
Original text: 问。若自所逼迫。若他所逼迫。若时候变异。若先业所引。皆得生受。何故此中。但显触为彼缘。答。触是彼近因故。由触所引故。余缘所生受。亦从触生故。必不离触。是故偏说。
Explanation: Question: Whether pressured by one's own conditions, pressured by other external forces, due to changes in seasonal and climatic conditions, or drawn by karmic actions of past lives—all these conditions can give rise to feelings. Why does this text only show contact as their condition for the birth of feelings? Answer: Because contact is the proximate cause of the birth of feelings (the others are all remote causes), and feelings are induced by contact. The feelings born from other conditions also arise from the condition of contact; without contact, even with other conditions, feelings would not arise. The birth of feelings certainly cannot be separated from contact; therefore it specifically says that contact is the condition of feeling.
Original text: 问。经中亦说。无明为缘生爱。顺爱境界。亦得为缘。何故此中。但说受为缘耶。答。以受力故。于相似境。或求和合。或求乖离。由愚痴力。但于诸受。起尽等相。不如实知。由此不能。制御其心。
Explanation: Question: The sūtras also say that craving arises with ignorance as its condition; ignorance is the condition of craving, and the sense objects that accord with craving can also be its condition and give rise to craving. Why does this text only say that feeling is the condition for the production of craving? Answer: Because of the force of feeling, when facing realms similar to the real ones, one either seeks union with them (because of pleasant feeling) or seeks separation and escape from them (because of painful feeling). Because of the force of the condition of delusion, one does not truly understand the marks of the arising and ceasing of the various feelings, and therefore cannot subdue one's mind; thus craving arises. Therefore it is said that feeling is the condition of craving.
Original text: 问。由随眠未断。顺彼诸法。取皆得生。何故此中。但说爱为取缘。答。由希望生故。于追求时。能发随眠。及能引彼。随顺法故。
Explanation: Question: Because the latent afflictions (anuśaya) have not been eradicated, one accords with them, and grasping of all dharmas can arise. Why does this text only say that craving is the condition for the arising of grasping? Answer: Because of the birth of longing and hope: while pursuing the craved objects, one can trigger the latent afflictions within, and can also lead one's own mind to accord with the latent afflictions. Therefore the condition for the arising of grasping is craving, not the latent afflictions.
The meaning of latent afflictions (anuśaya) is that when afflictions have not been eradicated, they remain hidden as seeds in the Ālayavijñāna, or lie dormant in the Ālayavijñāna; when conditions mature, the afflictions will manifest. But the afflictions also follow manas and accompany manas; when conditions mature, manas will accord with the afflictions and manifest them, and karmic actions will follow. Craving is also a kind of affliction; only because of craving does the mental action of grasping and clinging arise, whereas the affliction of hatred is aversion, not according, not grasping. Therefore it is said that craving conditions grasping, not that afflictions condition grasping.
Original text: 问。前已说无明为缘。发起业有。何故今者。说取缘有。答。由取力故。即令彼业。于彼彼生处。能引识名色等果。问。生亦以精血等为缘。何故此中。唯说有缘生耶。答。由有有故。定有余缘无阙。又有胜故。唯说彼为缘。
Explanation: Question: It has already been said earlier that with ignorance as the condition, karmic existence is initiated. Why is it now said that existence is born from the condition of grasping? Answer: Because of the force of grasping, the created karmic results can be born in the various realms and planes, and afterwards can induce the karmic results of the six consciousnesses, name-and-form, and so forth. Therefore it is said that grasping conditions existence.
Question: A living being is also born with the father's semen and mother's blood as conditions. Why does this text only say that the living being is produced from the condition of existence? Answer: Because there is existence, there will certainly be the other conditions fulfilled without deficiency for the birth of the living being; therefore it is said that existence conditions birth. Furthermore, because existence is the most supreme among all the conditions, it only says that existence is the condition of birth.
Original text: 问。亦由远行。不避不平等。他所逼迫为缘。老死可得。何故此中。但说生缘老死耶。答。虽由彼诸缘。必以生为根本故。纵阙彼缘。但生为缘。定有老死故。
Explanation: Question: The phenomenon of old age and death can also occur because, during the long course of a living being's existence, before the lifespan has come to its end, one fails to avoid sudden external conditions and, pressured by external forces, the lifespan is forced to terminate. Why does this text only say that the phenomenon of old age and death occurs because of birth? Answer: Although many conditions lead to the appearance of old age and death, old age and death must have birth as its fundamental condition. Even without the other conditions, so long as there is birth, there will certainly be old age and death; when there is no birth, no matter how many conditions there are, the phenomenon of old age and death will not occur. Therefore it is said that birth is the condition of old age and death.
